tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84379015341617801642024-03-15T21:09:51.185-04:00Dog Law ReporterReflections on the Society of Dogs and MenJohn Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.comBlogger297125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-64546297959230953212023-11-08T07:23:00.000-05:002023-11-08T07:23:04.156-05:00Dogs in the Margin of a Medieval Jewish Manuscript<p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiiOkqRyPRkasJtZVk9qZGHshUdNH3XShsARGzF7LERxYHErLlcB2U6pXEdggr0A7ziDZDqEq5k3NAMH3elk99ttsvzrIqgLH8a8mIucrBSnyQBnXxffRsJgJYeyGE3hgKAvfniDEAtxV9MTXxbcg-R6pK3gjNFQobgBarBnDMz0xi6CSPbGvw_yBIeVE/s3312/Hagada%20de%20Barcelona%20fig%2050%20exhibit.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3312" data-original-width="2292" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiiOkqRyPRkasJtZVk9qZGHshUdNH3XShsARGzF7LERxYHErLlcB2U6pXEdggr0A7ziDZDqEq5k3NAMH3elk99ttsvzrIqgLH8a8mIucrBSnyQBnXxffRsJgJYeyGE3hgKAvfniDEAtxV9MTXxbcg-R6pK3gjNFQobgBarBnDMz0xi6CSPbGvw_yBIeVE/w276-h400/Hagada%20de%20Barcelona%20fig%2050%20exhibit.jpg" width="276" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Haggadah of Barcelona, c. 1340</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;">There is a page of the mid-fourteenth century Haggadah of
Barcelona, presently on display in the Prado Museum in Madrid, which depicts a
section of the Passover Seder, <i>Ha
lachma anya</i> (“This is the bread of affliction that our ancestors ate in the
land of Egypt”). The original Aramaic
text, the catalog of the exhibit explains, was composed after the destruction
of the great temple of Jerusalem, perhaps as late as the sixth century CE.</div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The exhibit at the Prado, <a href="https://www.museodelprado.es/en/whats-on/exhibition/the-lost-mirror-jews-and-conversos-in-medieval/ac516c08-08d9-42fb-a7fd-1cba121e9946" target="_blank">The Lost Mirror: Jews and
Conversos in Medieval Spain (<i>El espejo perdido. Judíos y Conversos en la
España Medieval</i>)</a> seeks to bring a reckoning to the
Spanish treatment of the Jews in medieval Spain, culminating in their expulsion in 1492, the same year Columbus began his first voyage across the Atlantic. Multiple viewpoints are given of this troubled history in
the exhibit, presented in a stunning catalog, which <a href="https://tiendaprado.com/en/books/7036-el-espejo-perdido-9788484806011.html" target="_blank">can be ordered from the museum</a> (available in Spanish and English). </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Conversions from Judaism to Christianity were extensive after pogroms in 1391, but
doubts about the sincerity of the conversions led to the Spanish Inquisition
of 1478. Whether the primary motive for this persecution was religious—because
converts continued to conduct Jewish rituals in secret—or ethnic—because it did
not matter to the Inquisitors that many converts had genuinely adopted
Catholicism—continues to be a matter of contentious debate. If the persecution was
based on ethnic intolerance, then the Inquisition prefigures the Holocaust, where Christian
conversions were ignored in the selection of Jews for extermination. See
Netanyahu (2001).</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBDt7fGskJeKlRERx3STFOiU2iUmzT-G7W6JVWO66aBqUpIT8lvxEJ3jtW8Mm4LIT0fO_5VZUZD-QFNOoKvQ3Z-nGz_OD2-liafsbb4xWq2eNiPHepL-mWJivJszk8-uzEJK72-N8snpAZuxOuIxYPewf0rSxnKQij1lfhMf34PpYQPWHWjsm0hwRO10c/s1379/central%20panel.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="803" data-original-width="1379" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBDt7fGskJeKlRERx3STFOiU2iUmzT-G7W6JVWO66aBqUpIT8lvxEJ3jtW8Mm4LIT0fO_5VZUZD-QFNOoKvQ3Z-nGz_OD2-liafsbb4xWq2eNiPHepL-mWJivJszk8-uzEJK72-N8snpAZuxOuIxYPewf0rSxnKQij1lfhMf34PpYQPWHWjsm0hwRO10c/w400-h233/central%20panel.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Haggadah of Barcelona, detail of central panel</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;">The exhibit focuses on interactions between Christians, Jews, and <i>conversos</i>. The catalog of the exhibit notes
that the language of <i>Ha lachma anya</i> is <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 11pt;">“</span>an implicit response” to
Christ’s words at the Last Supper, “Take this and eat; this is my body.”
Matthew 26:26 (New English Bible translation). Both passages involved redemption, but the
Jewish perspective concerns a redemption from slavery in Egypt while the
Christian perspective is a redemption from sin through Christ. </div><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The central panel of the displayed page from the Barcelona
Haggadah shows two moments in the seder ritual: (1) when the head of the family
divides the matzo into two portions, wrapping the largest portion, the <i>afikomen</i>, in
cloth, and (2) when the mother, at the other end of the table, hides the
afikomen under the table. The afikomen will be found by the children, who are seated between their parents, at the end of the meal but always before midnight, the time when God killed the firstborn of the Egyptians and saved the Israelites. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The catalog
notes that the afikomen bears parallels to the host of the Eucharist and is disturbingly similar to an antiquated ritual of the medieval Catholic Church. In that ritual,
two hosts were made from one on Holy Thursday. One was used immediately for the Eucharist, but the other was
carried in procession to a chapel where it was placed inside a <i>ciborium</i>,
which could take several forms but was most commonly a cup. On Good Friday, this saved host was removed, covered with cloth and buried in a ritual called the <i>depositio</i>. On Easter Sunday, it was taken back to the altar in a ritual called the <i>elevatio</i>.
The catalog notes that in the rituals of both religions, the unleavened bread, in the form of the afikomen or the consecrated host, becomes a substitute for the sacrificial lamb. For Judaism, the symbolism of the
lamb derives from sacrifices at the Temple in Jerusalem prior to its destruction in AD 70. In Christian tradition, the sacrifice of the Lamb of God occurs with the crucifixion of Jesus. Whether the ritual of hiding or burying unleavened
bread for a short period began in Judaism or in Christianity remains uncertain. In any
case, the catalog notes that a ritual polemic existed between the two religions. This dialogue may have begun in the Near East in the period as Christianity separated itself from its parent religion. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSPXJgSq4pUOaPVpj6j5VV5MGX8F8nlbbohwWOdh9RqpbkVb6ROjA-6icL51ymZ2u_bLEDutFLe8J_GzuZ-gVs0xl5KvRYOl5lQot7hBMOoZwaRy1vyy5zmKQKyo8NZi6kw32GQRqXt2cXYvOwkUwzDdpFiHyKjUjy1u0Iz48k3er0iXJWX6oPYWgwcVo/s1058/top%20margin%20detail%20dog%20&%20hare.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="403" data-original-width="1058" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSPXJgSq4pUOaPVpj6j5VV5MGX8F8nlbbohwWOdh9RqpbkVb6ROjA-6icL51ymZ2u_bLEDutFLe8J_GzuZ-gVs0xl5KvRYOl5lQot7hBMOoZwaRy1vyy5zmKQKyo8NZi6kw32GQRqXt2cXYvOwkUwzDdpFiHyKjUjy1u0Iz48k3er0iXJWX6oPYWgwcVo/w640-h245/top%20margin%20detail%20dog%20&%20hare.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Haggadah of Barcelona, detail of upper margin</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">The exhibit catalog observes that though there may have been
hostility between the Christian and Jewish communities, and some of this may be
apparent in the conflicts that underlie the imagery of the Haggadah, there were
other non-polemical elements in the artistry of the Haggadah. Although not specifically discussed by the
catalog, what caught my eye was the imagery of the margins of the page showing
the afikomen ritual, which shows animals involved in playing and hunting. These
images are surprising as they are similar to much marginal decoration of the
Middle Ages and would not be out of place surrounding a Christian,
philosophical, or classical text. </div><o:p></o:p><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij-xhArRdFsoWten80w5QoCuLl0E7EkDVB5pcxoH6T8VfwQtZH7xZqLbDveaU7ZaCFF-7J3onyK5B8IWYaF5Ve6HExabt-NpLUnuxNYSHMK2qTPy6oNbZ7Y-k3GdTdBhUeA3LCNgHhJy0bnBDxU90U7VJLvrOhGmFWgjeEI71v2b4y63DxKMvFjwdxpIo/s337/Livre%20du%20government%20f%201.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="166" data-original-width="337" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij-xhArRdFsoWten80w5QoCuLl0E7EkDVB5pcxoH6T8VfwQtZH7xZqLbDveaU7ZaCFF-7J3onyK5B8IWYaF5Ve6HExabt-NpLUnuxNYSHMK2qTPy6oNbZ7Y-k3GdTdBhUeA3LCNgHhJy0bnBDxU90U7VJLvrOhGmFWgjeEI71v2b4y63DxKMvFjwdxpIo/w400-h198/Livre%20du%20government%20f%201.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Livre du gouvernment des rois</i>, detail, Morgan Library</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;">At the top, something of a joke is presented by the hare
blowing a horn to summon a flummoxed dog to the hunt. Margin art in which roles
of dogs and prey are reversed or confused are a feature in medieval margin illustration.
See, for instance, the top margin of a frontispiece of a French manuscript, <i>Livre
du gouvernment des rois</i>, in the Morgan Library, where a dog duels with a
rabbit. (See discussion of Caviness
(2001) at Figure 3.1.)</div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The bottom margin of the page from the Barcelona Haggadah shows
more realistic hunting tableaux, with a greyhound (<i>lebrel</i>) chasing a
hare on the left. The hound clearly has a collar and ears that have not been
cropped and that flow with the wind of the dog’s fast pace. The grey animal to the right may be a wolf as
there appears to be no collar, and may be barking at a Dachshund or terrier or
perhaps at the huntsman blowing a horn. The huntsman carries a pole from which is
suspended an animal, perhaps a coney. The
lebrel may be a smaller type of sighthound such as a galgo. If the animal I
have designated a wolf wore a collar, I would label it an <i>alano </i>but I do not
think the slight darkening at the neck is meant to indicate a collar. </p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihzhnJCzUsbAAPga7XjwxcxO4vczZwDnbICVKq949GYdOTkPBgbP1qfHTFbSvZZ-9kBfztiiKLHBHFwWUjF9HJYFqUf1SfHhgqujMRpwdgdscRDQqxIUAHSkykRe55QTambCoXpvqU39yAQTRbV_0L7MTZaXtO5EVBy2sGfa0w9HiS9fCtC7HUf0bVD-o/s1818/bottom%20margin%20detail.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="731" data-original-width="1818" height="258" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihzhnJCzUsbAAPga7XjwxcxO4vczZwDnbICVKq949GYdOTkPBgbP1qfHTFbSvZZ-9kBfztiiKLHBHFwWUjF9HJYFqUf1SfHhgqujMRpwdgdscRDQqxIUAHSkykRe55QTambCoXpvqU39yAQTRbV_0L7MTZaXtO5EVBy2sGfa0w9HiS9fCtC7HUf0bVD-o/w640-h258/bottom%20margin%20detail.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Haggadah of Barcelona, detail of lower margin</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;">The hound chasing the hare was one of the most common
marginal motifs in medieval books and occurred even in texts where the only
illustrations were on a frontispiece. Hunting scenes were, according to Camille
(2002), evidence of a healthy manorial economy and reminded large landowners of
their right to enclose their forest preserves for private hunting. Although the
illustrations on the afikomen page may not reflect a hunting proclivity of the
original owner of the document, it does indicate that certain decorative themes
would be used by the wealthier members of medieval society, regardless of
religious disposition. </div><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>References: <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>Camille, Michael (1992)</b>. Image on the Edge: The
Margins in Medieval Art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>Caviness, Madeline H. (2001).</b> Reframing Medieval Art:
Difference, Margins, Boundaries, <a href="https://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/">posted by the Tufts Archival Research Center</a>. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>Molina Figueras, Joan</b> et al. (2023). <a href="https://tiendaprado.com/es/libros/7037-the-lost-mirror-9788484806028.html"><i>Es Espeo
Perdido: Judíos y Conversos en la España Medieval</i>. Madrid: Museo Nacional
del Prado</a>.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>Netanyahu, Benzion (2001)</b>. The Origins of the
Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain, 2d. ed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>New York: New York Review Books. Note: the author was the father of the
current Prime Minister of Israel. <o:p></o:p></p><br /></div></span>John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-30695549693619073062023-08-13T07:53:00.007-04:002023-08-22T05:41:07.573-04:00The Dog at the Feet of Archbishop Tenorio <p></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWWBoz2BCj4mqWkHgYIE2gjMNBlVJcOKfCgMmf8xk8Y4m9KSD1_HCVZjiFSdcJqZLEBhgDaVQ0XhlK9vZGiTjkWlCQHqetwQq5JPlF7wmokGDcZePA9UBtGjddFTDy9JCrTM6K4xgSCDhz2nMjHL5KzV9dU3yZrOvR-ud1TjwdbIbz4w_Nq-Bhd-SWz-o/s2712/tomb%20of%20Pedro%20Tenorio%20detail.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2256" data-original-width="2712" height="533" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWWBoz2BCj4mqWkHgYIE2gjMNBlVJcOKfCgMmf8xk8Y4m9KSD1_HCVZjiFSdcJqZLEBhgDaVQ0XhlK9vZGiTjkWlCQHqetwQq5JPlF7wmokGDcZePA9UBtGjddFTDy9JCrTM6K4xgSCDhz2nMjHL5KzV9dU3yZrOvR-ud1TjwdbIbz4w_Nq-Bhd-SWz-o/w640-h533/tomb%20of%20Pedro%20Tenorio%20detail.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 1. Tomb of Archbishop Pedro Tenorio (d. 1399) (taken by the author, October 2016).</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;">Pedro Tenorio, born about 1328, was archbishop of Toledo
from 1377 until his death in 1399. His tomb is in the <i>Capilla de San Blas</i>
(chapel of Saint Blaise) in the cathedral of Toledo, where his marble effigy lies recumbant
in the vestments of his office, at his feet a dog. The dog looks adoringly
towards his master. The tomb was carved in the workshop of Ferrand
Gonzalez, a painter and sculptor, who was responsible for other tombs with
similar features, including many with dogs lying in the same position
and attitude. The archbishop was heavily involved in the design of the Capilla
de San Blas and it is likely that he wanted the accompaniment of a hunting dog
at his final resting place. (Figures 1 and 3 show the dog of Archbishop Tenorio from different angles.)</div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsqhPfBKrGJL9zG5GXrU6bZoPBugQLO2K-e8ljSmC4Pf7D1Lkgvn-Ak3b2Y5hOs85914snRly991mDvnUE7c8TUanG7R6QDJ-1Hw9bKxjMVdtI4NcIQCi_2wzlTV_ZbYOH5qwZbUkhJpfY1VnRvWdQowYbjxuPMXoIy3IAv-jP--LoiWLQn4pGA7b7Qzk/s4112/Amad%C3%ADs,_el_perro_de_Lorenzo_Su%C3%A1rez_de_Figueroa_(Sevilla).jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="4112" data-original-width="3088" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsqhPfBKrGJL9zG5GXrU6bZoPBugQLO2K-e8ljSmC4Pf7D1Lkgvn-Ak3b2Y5hOs85914snRly991mDvnUE7c8TUanG7R6QDJ-1Hw9bKxjMVdtI4NcIQCi_2wzlTV_ZbYOH5qwZbUkhJpfY1VnRvWdQowYbjxuPMXoIy3IAv-jP--LoiWLQn4pGA7b7Qzk/w300-h400/Amad%C3%ADs,_el_perro_de_Lorenzo_Su%C3%A1rez_de_Figueroa_(Sevilla).jpg" width="300" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 2. Amadis, dog of Lorenzo Suarez.</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">Architectural discussions of the chapel and the tomb refer
to the dog as a <i>lebrel</i>, a greyhound or sighthound (Franco Mata, 1991; Perez
Higuera, 1978). The dogs of the tombs carved in the workshop of Ferrand
Gonzalez generally have wide and ornate collars. In two of the tombs
attributed to Ferrand Gonzalez, the collars of the dogs contain their names. (Figure 2 shows a dog at the feet of Lorenzo Suarez de Figueroa, another tomb carved by Ferrand Gonzalez, with the dog's name on the back of the collar. Courtesy Jose Luis Filpo Caban, Wikimedia Commons, 2017). For
tombs of ladies, the dogs at their feet, or at their sides, are small lapdogs.. The collars of lapdogs are often decorated with bells (Figure 4, tomb of Leonor Guzman de Castilla. Courtesy Wikimedia Commons).</div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The dog at the archbishop’s feet is not the only dog in the
Capilla de San Blas. On the ceiling, one panel, perhaps painted by Ferrand Gonzalez, depicts the adoration of the shepherds. In the painting, a dog rests curled up on the ground in a nook below the box in which the swaddled Christ
child looks upon his visitors (Fig. 5. Ceiling panel in Capilla de San Blas, Wikimedia Commons). The dog does not have cropped ears as do the
dogs of the tombs and could be either a hunting or guarding
type. (Curiously, many centuries later, the architect Antoni Guadi, would have a Catalan sheep dog accompany the <a href="https://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2017/10/the-dog-at-last-supper-franciscan.html">shepherds visiting the manger on the Nativity Façade</a>
of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona.) <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><div style="text-align: justify;">The dogs could be lebreles, but probably not in the most narrow sense. Alberto Salas (1950), in his description of the dogs of the Spanish conquest, noted that alanos were sometimes classified as lebreles. There were regional and probably temporal variations in terms for hunting dogs, so it must be kept in mind that the dog
at the feet of the archbishop was carved at the end of the fourteenth century
and one must know something about the hunting culture of that period to
understand why such dogs were a common architectural feature.</div><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHEN0vhpuyT78Flh4zULfBhnVG3mFAMkBuFwWVnXVnTp1bCAF_n7SZhulVrw14Mj1YvsI8QwCTTcp2JraFIi5kSTMOq4wjVbfl9noFdFH5pvRGkHF3igMjd49d36Pf3edjrSfjZHGiM56zlRGtAQ2uYJBXxdu5BvNFUFOzNrimoNE24Yukduzg1G5ndnY/s1688/dog%20at%20feet%20of%20Pedro%20Tenorio%20detail.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1652" data-original-width="1688" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHEN0vhpuyT78Flh4zULfBhnVG3mFAMkBuFwWVnXVnTp1bCAF_n7SZhulVrw14Mj1YvsI8QwCTTcp2JraFIi5kSTMOq4wjVbfl9noFdFH5pvRGkHF3igMjd49d36Pf3edjrSfjZHGiM56zlRGtAQ2uYJBXxdu5BvNFUFOzNrimoNE24Yukduzg1G5ndnY/s320/dog%20at%20feet%20of%20Pedro%20Tenorio%20detail.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 3. Tomb of Archbishop Tenorio (detail).</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">The hunts of the pontifical court of Toledo were elaborate affairs
involving the archbishop and his entourage, which included crossbowmen, various professional
hunters, falconers, and sometimes minstrels, drummers, and trumpeters. The overall supervision of
the hunt fell upon an important official, the <i>montero
mayor</i>, chief hunter. Hunting parties were largely unrestricted in where
they could hunt, ranging freely across estates and through cities and towns where they could demand that the <i>corregidores</i> (mayors) provide lodging free of charge and provisions
at moderate prices. Among the dogs they brought were not only lebreles, but
also <i>sabuesos</i> (similar to bloodhounds), and <i>ventores</i> (sometimes described
as crosses of sabuesos and <i>mastins</i>). The ladies might have their lapdogs. Such parties hunted deer and rousted birds.
This was burdensome to the communities through which the entourage passed as indicated by a petition of seven villages within
the archbishopric of Toledo asking that, because of the impositions of the archbishop's frequent hunting
parties, the villages should be relieved of <i>los pechos de Hermandad</i> (the
tax of St. Hermandad), the funds of which were used to suppress robbers and
keep the roads secure (Ortega Cervigon, 2003).</div><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><div style="text-align: justify;">Correspondence of Archbishop Tenorio refers to his alanos, which were highly prized. In June 1291, King Juan 1 of Aragon wrote to him,
requesting that he send two alanos and an alana (presumably so that the king could breed
them himself). Records also survive of the salaries of the archbishop’s <i>mojos de
alanos</i> “alano boys” (Canas Galvez 2010, 2020). John Cummins (2003) noted that a ruler from a slightly earlier period, Alfonso XI of Castile (1311-1350), was particularly fond of alanos and wrote extensively about them in a hunting treatise (while barely mentioning lebreles), but a miniature showing him on his throne suggests that he kept a favored lebrel, "perhaps as a graceful presence rather than as a hunting dog."</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAAPR3jdm6pmwz3jqPVDSk3I-Ja-l3Hcz38E_xMh97lI9cak1iemK6B89hcelt6HGL_s_eOsPzI5qIIi3WXAl_DlQC7VLdtneWuAHFZ4xuPqFwuvNlyDj5w3_ETW4bKaW9ZvRGxgabxnDN-40lfdMjB5LYyBlnM6HkAAiOnk2lJEWRcGum_nfoD09BiOQ/s486/dog%20at%20feet%20of%20Leonor%20of%20Castile%20with%20bells%20on%20collar.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="486" data-original-width="318" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAAPR3jdm6pmwz3jqPVDSk3I-Ja-l3Hcz38E_xMh97lI9cak1iemK6B89hcelt6HGL_s_eOsPzI5qIIi3WXAl_DlQC7VLdtneWuAHFZ4xuPqFwuvNlyDj5w3_ETW4bKaW9ZvRGxgabxnDN-40lfdMjB5LYyBlnM6HkAAiOnk2lJEWRcGum_nfoD09BiOQ/w261-h400/dog%20at%20feet%20of%20Leonor%20of%20Castile%20with%20bells%20on%20collar.jpg" width="261" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 4. Tomb of Leonor de Castilla (detail).</td></tr></tbody></table>The ears of the hunting dogs carved by Ferrand Gonzalez, to the extent I have been able to find pictorial evidence, are cropped. (Franco Mata and Perez Higuera do not completely agree on the list of tombs sculpted by Ferrand Gonzalez). A manuscript in the British Museum (Almazán 1936) states that the ears of alanos should be cropped on the tenth day after they open their eyes, but the ears of lebreles should be left alone. </div><o:p></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Funerary sculptures of dogs in the late middle ages should probably not be expected to reflect a precise reality of the subjects. The bulbous heads and thick bodies of the dogs carved by Ferrand Gonzalez may reflect artistic objectives that compromised realism. We must also acknowledge the greater variation in types prior to modern breeding practices. Despite these caveats, the dog at the feet of the archbishop, and the other dogs sculpted by Ferrand Gonzalez appear to be alanos, bulkier than the swiftest lebreles and more useful in a fight against a boar, though less likely to catch up with a deer or a rabbit. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">In a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035">paper published in 2022</a>, I argued that the dogs that Columbus brought to the Hispaniola on his second voyage were lebreles, as indicated by most contemporary or near-contemporary sources, not <i>mastines</i> (mastiffs), as sometimes stated by more recent historians. This was a specific instance of the transfer of dogs from the Old World to the New, but to provide a thorough analysis of dogs brought by European migrations and to know what was expected of them in the new environment, one must consider their original function and appearance. Thus, it would be necessary to investigate how these dogs were used in Europe for hunting, herding, and decorating the boudoir, for which there would be many variations across the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, Russian, and other cultures that sent dogs to the Americas. Hopefully there is some doctoral student, perhaps in a combined history and art program, working on this. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>References:</b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div><div style="text-align: justify;">Almazán, Duque de (2005. 1936). Tratado de montería del siglo XV: Manuscrito del Museo Británico [1936]. Facsimile edition. Madrid: Editorial Maxtor.</div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Cañas Gálvez, Francisco de Paula (2020). Los Últimos Años
del Pontificado de Pedro Tenorio: Contextos Politicos, Ámbitos de Actuacion,
Muerte y Testamento de un Primado Toledano (1393-†1399). Hispania Sacra,
72(145), 151-176 (2020).</div><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">--- (2010). La cámara de Juan II: Vida privada, ceremonia y
lujo en la Corte de Castilla a mediados del siglo XV. Evolucion Estructura de
la Casa Real de Castilla, vol. 1, 81-195.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Cummins, John (2003). The art of medieval hunting: the hound and the hawk. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.</p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: justify;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHJU0mV2SquKNbXJBYKyhyEHX02MUI4HqHFgeQ19YjN1Uw1ZtB8SnMomioyjZpvr3s_RSLOnEfDLpMQ3UnJvn1rExWHTV6IIaBMspOiBFyRgkj-BfwmR9hQinZNOJ_5r-FyKFUfSoN8FRv3HXMn06qHW4eBHrMCf1tcNdtbq4Q51x55ExOA8ZYKyA4ZyI/s2283/Capilla%20de%20San%20Blas,%20Adoration.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1919" data-original-width="2283" height="336" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHJU0mV2SquKNbXJBYKyhyEHX02MUI4HqHFgeQ19YjN1Uw1ZtB8SnMomioyjZpvr3s_RSLOnEfDLpMQ3UnJvn1rExWHTV6IIaBMspOiBFyRgkj-BfwmR9hQinZNOJ_5r-FyKFUfSoN8FRv3HXMn06qHW4eBHrMCf1tcNdtbq4Q51x55ExOA8ZYKyA4ZyI/w400-h336/Capilla%20de%20San%20Blas,%20Adoration.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fig. 5. <i>Adoracion de pastores</i>, Capilla de San Blas</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="text-align: justify;">Ensminger, John (2022). From hunters to hell hounds: the dogs of Columbus and transformations of the human-canine relationship in the early Spanish Caribbean. Colonial Latin American Review, 31(3), 354-380. </div><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Franco Mata,
Angela (1991)., El Sepulcro de don Pedro Suarez III (s XIV) y el taller toledano de
Ferrand Gonzalez, Boletin del Museo Arqueologico Nacional, vol. IX, no. 1.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Montoya, María Isabel (1990). Léxico de libro de la montería de Alfonso XI. Granada: Universidad de Granada.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ortega Cervigon (2003) La funcionalidad política de la
nobleza castellana: el oficio de Montero Mayor durante el siglo XV<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Perez Higuera, T.
(1978) Ferrand Gonzalez y los sepulcros del taller toledano (1385-1410). Boletin
del Seminario de Arte y Arqueologia, Universidad del Valladolid, vol. 44,
129-142.</span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Salas, Alberto Mario (1950). Las armas de la conquista. Buenos Aires: Emecé.</p><p></p>John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-40535252972657978862023-06-20T04:16:00.000-04:002023-06-20T04:16:19.666-04:00April 29, 2020 <div style="text-align: justify;"><p><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">April 29, 2020, was perhaps the worst day of my life. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Chloe was scheduled to die. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I had made an appointment for her to be euthanized by our
veterinarian, Dr. R, who had been treating Chloe for most of her life. Chloe
trusted her. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">COVID hit Rhinebeck and most of the United States in early
March of 2020. The veterinary practice in which Dr. R worked now prohibited pet
owners from coming into the facility with their pets. The usual procedure was
for owners to call from the parking lot to say they were outside. One of the
vet techs would find you, ask the purpose of the visit, and take the animal
inside. The vet called you after your pet had been
evaluated. Any decisions regarding treatment were made over the phone.
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Euthanasia was different, of course. No conversation would
generally be needed, but I had told Dr. R that I wanted to be with Chloe when
she died. Dr. R was okay with that, but she said that each veterinarian in the
animal hospital could, at least for the moment, decide whether to allow an
exception to the usual euthanasia protocol. This mattered because Dr. R was
working every other week as part of the practice's COVID staffing pattern and if Chloe began to have more pain than she or we
could bear and we needed to schedule quickly I might not be able to get an
appointment on short notice. I was also concerned that if Dr. R herself got COVID I might not be able to be with Chloe during the procedure at all. I did not know most vets in the
practice and some might not want to deal with a potentially hysterical owner.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Chloe had been sick for a long time. She had Cushing’s disease and the symptoms had
been getting worse for more than a year. She had two cancerous lumps in her
throat and one on her liver. The ones in her throat made it hard for her to
swallow. She was a standard size labradoodle who had been 52 pounds at a good
weight. By April 2020 she weighed only 37
pounds. Sometimes when I walked her she could not go more than a few hundred feet and I had to carry
her back to our home. It was not difficult. With so little muscle tissue it was like lifting a bag of bones. Sometimes the pain contorted her
face, unmistakable as crying. </p>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIH3Qc6lmQl06jcUrWOV5FUyh0vj-kaQo78yJDZQ9sVjIPO3QcEIG_rhGq9Vzj634jNb8jJdQofbtnA1c5KMvzTT7m2Xe1wh1_4S8OZfVm2WgvoGdQ0rOd3bDg2ze7efopN3E2uyCTLKo-W6rwqhtJGf8JaHIruIu5ARUe6nDcDF-TPIPfwHo97eV8/s5472/SSRNphoto2.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3648" data-original-width="5472" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIH3Qc6lmQl06jcUrWOV5FUyh0vj-kaQo78yJDZQ9sVjIPO3QcEIG_rhGq9Vzj634jNb8jJdQofbtnA1c5KMvzTT7m2Xe1wh1_4S8OZfVm2WgvoGdQ0rOd3bDg2ze7efopN3E2uyCTLKo-W6rwqhtJGf8JaHIruIu5ARUe6nDcDF-TPIPfwHo97eV8/w640-h426/SSRNphoto2.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr align="left"><td class="tr-caption">Courtesy John Eastcott<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Most of our friends and my wife felt that it was time. Dr. R felt
that it was time. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Yet she would rally. There were mornings when we would walk
around the circle of our neighborhood and prance for a while as she once had. She would
sniff her human and canine friends and even drop a few inches into the play
stance. It was as if she wanted the
other dogs to know she was still one of them, still part of the neighborhood
pack. She would watch other dogs play and make slight gestures as if remembering what it was like to run without cares. But she knew
her own limitations. After a minute she would look at me. She wanted to go home
and lie down. Things might be different tomorrow. She would soon run and pounce
again, chase a ball, bark at a squirrel. </p><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Most dogs after puppyhood stand while eating, but
Chloe ate lying on her stomach, her food bowl between her paws. This continued
most of her life. Only when she started to get sick, at about twelve years old,
did she begin to eat standing up. Perhaps it was the cancer in her throat, a
standing position making it easier to get the food past the irritating lumps as
they began to grow. Dr. R said that the tumors
were deep, not just on the surface, and reached into major veins and
arteries and likely into the spinal column. Surgery might provide temporary relief
but not for long and in any case would not be a cure. The only thing we could
do was to make her as comfortable as possible. There was no hope. It was just a
question of time. She was in hospice. Joan and I would wake to hear her gasping
and coughing and Joan would look at me. How much longer was I going to make
Chloe live? </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I had made one earlier euthanasia appointment but had canceled. When I made the appointment for April 29, Dr. R told me that I
could still cancel at any time, even when we got to the animal hospital. “But
it is time,” she emphasized. She said this again during an appointment several days before the final one. Joan begged me to listen to her. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“She’s ready,” Joan assured me.<br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">But I wasn’t. I could not let go.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I was lucky that on the morning of the procedure I was able
to reach my friend Gene in Cincinnati, the only person I really trusted to tell me if
I was doing the right thing. I do not remember if I asked or he answered that
specific question, but he did tell me what I could do to make Chloe’s last
moments as pleasant as they could be. He said I should keep physical contact
and that I should talk to her through the procedure. Even when she lost sight
she might still hear and smell me, and she could feel my touch. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">When we arrived at the animal hospital, the vet tech came
out and led us around to the back of the facility. He said that we could do it
outside. There was a park bench in an area that could be seen from the backs of several
houses. Someone was mowing a lawn and I rejected the idea because I did not
want to talk to her over the mower. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The animal hospital has a room, far from the waiting room
and the examination rooms, really a large closet in a storage area, where there
was a metal laboratory table and three chairs. Joan and I waited there while
they put the needles in place in another part of the facility. It took about
five minutes. When Chloe was brought into the room, there was a green elastic
band around her leg where the needles were inserted, the caps sticking out. She
was on a leash but loose in the room for the moment. She pranced as if she were
young again. She knew that something was different. She knew that this was not
an ordinary visit to the veterinary hospital. I am aware of the debates, and
the research, concerning what animals know about death. She knew something was
going to happen that was different than anything that had happened to her
before.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">She was not ready, I sometimes believe. Sometimes I tell
myself she was ambivalent about what was coming. I still feel guilty that I did
not stop the procedure. It seemed as if she was telling me she was still alive
and wanted to stay alive. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Dr. R entered the room and told us what would happen. We had
been told it all before but it was more real with the chemical containers, the
towels, the tubes, the medical smells, the band on Chloe’s leg. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Chloe stood passively as the vet tech picked her up. She did
not struggle against his gentle cradling of her emaciated body as he lowered
her onto the table. . </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“I’ll be working on this end,” said Dr. R. “You have that
end.”</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Chloe’s head and chest were in front of me. She was looking
at me. She was afraid but she was not fighting either me or the doctor, who was
connecting the caps above the needles to the tubes that would bring a series of fluids into her veins. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Joan could not take it anymore. She was crying, sobbing. I
was crying. The vet tech who was helping the doctor was crying. Joan left the
room. The vet tech finished his responsibilities and also left.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Dr. R said she would first sedate Chloe and that she would
slowly go to sleep. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“I want to talk to her,” I said. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjynU7PqkaMdflndzPyrd5y43QkunxtzKbvPup-4sEvqeP46LVXvXbXP-VrF5V6n1vUj_VX94O7ZkS9PZqDAovoMWcFBH72ZZ-E1dulwxvYM_Sl3cNC_hKX9iCdv6Fu2ScyPxOh_oaNLqG-cF-gfBowpEOLHVSCGP5OXJ7yQlD9zEKMpr7HQqKodEaR/s652/little%20girl%202.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="465" data-original-width="652" height="456" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjynU7PqkaMdflndzPyrd5y43QkunxtzKbvPup-4sEvqeP46LVXvXbXP-VrF5V6n1vUj_VX94O7ZkS9PZqDAovoMWcFBH72ZZ-E1dulwxvYM_Sl3cNC_hKX9iCdv6Fu2ScyPxOh_oaNLqG-cF-gfBowpEOLHVSCGP5OXJ7yQlD9zEKMpr7HQqKodEaR/w640-h456/little%20girl%202.jpg" width="640" /></a>Dr. R nodded. I began to speak.</p>“Remember when we went to the hospitals. Remember how the
people would smile when you entered the room. They were always so happy to see
you. Sometimes they would cry when they saw you. They would talk about their
own dogs. They would ask about you. They would not look at me but only
at you, always at you.”
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Such things I said. She was still conscious. She was looking
into my eyes. I was crying. Her face was calm. She was quiet. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I talked about the hospitals, the schools, the libraries
that we had visited for ten years as a therapy dog team. When a friend was
dying in a hospital in New Jersey, I had brought her with me because it had
happened so quickly there was no one we could leave her with. I had presented
her credentials and given them a copy of my book about therapy dogs and they
instantly enrolled us in their therapy dog program so that we could take her to
the room where our friend was lying.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I had taken her to a special school in Lake Katrine, New York, for many
years and I reminded Chloe about the children she had visited. Perhaps I
reminded her of the time a boy had clamped a hand on her back and squeezed so
hard that she yelped. I had to brace her head and calm her while two teachers
gradually persuaded the boy to release his tugging grip. She never tried to
bite him. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I remembered many other things and kept talking. She was no
longer looking at me, or at anything. Her eyes were not moving but I saw slight
shifts in her ears so I hoped she was hearing me, smelling me, feeling me. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">It had been difficult for her to get certified as a therapy
dog. She flunked the first time we tried. One part of the test requires that
the dog be led past a hot dog on the ground. The dog must leave the hot dog
alone on the command to “Leave it!” That did not happen.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">We worked for six months on that. I would put down hot dogs,
then give her other treats she liked even better if she left the hot dog alone.
Eventually she became dependable at this. You cannot use treats during a certification
test, but on our second try she walked past the hot dog without incident. Of
course she then expected a treat, but it was too late. She had passed. We
became a therapy dog team and worked in New York and Arizona. Joan and I were
snowbirds to Phoenix, Arizona, where we had a house in which we spent nine
winters. Arizona was where we met Dennis and Carol, whose West Highland Terrier
became Chloe’s best friend during the winters.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_rX7c7TCOwgrWyWdHEAB0CPxGgfVA4RupQqkQ9kBzwDiZFN7nQkJtL7H-uhM-CRcN4ieI55_0F76sOzxe1pMAIA5EftK20S6WOdwpKctkTupOIYzwSVu1XClKrnavxxO8DV6qp04j_e3xZzqBV7shqpS3hbHxiAglensu3NSRC-EiSSkUG_1zYJrm/s1603/Chloe%20at%20special%20school%202010.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1511" data-original-width="1603" height="604" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_rX7c7TCOwgrWyWdHEAB0CPxGgfVA4RupQqkQ9kBzwDiZFN7nQkJtL7H-uhM-CRcN4ieI55_0F76sOzxe1pMAIA5EftK20S6WOdwpKctkTupOIYzwSVu1XClKrnavxxO8DV6qp04j_e3xZzqBV7shqpS3hbHxiAglensu3NSRC-EiSSkUG_1zYJrm/w640-h604/Chloe%20at%20special%20school%202010.jpg" width="640" /></a></p>Chloe was a natural therapy dog. One of the first trainers I knew, Liz,
gave me the idea. She said that Chloe liked people and was entertaining because she was "a little goofy." People
were never afraid of her, even people who didn’t like dogs. She would be great
with children. I called several hospitals to find out what would be needed and
then contacted one of the national therapy dog organizations. We began taking
basic and then more advanced obedience classes in Phoenix and New York. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;">We joined the Ulster Dog
Training Club in Woodstock, New York. The president of the club was Fran, who one day asked me to write a page or two about the difference
between service dogs and therapy dogs because several members of the club were
considering training their dogs to be therapy dogs and wanted to know if they
could then take them into restaurants and other places with no-pets signs..
That started my career in writing about dogs.</div><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">So I was talking to Chloe about the people who had meant the
most to her in her life. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“She’s gone.” </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I had to step out of my memories with Chloe and come back
into the room. I looked at the doctor.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“She’s gone,” Dr. R repeated. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I breathed, then sobbed. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">“She was special,” Dr. R said. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">"Yes."</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">"Very special." </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">"Yes."<br /></p>
<p></p>John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-42811396635540422412023-01-20T05:43:00.020-05:002023-03-06T07:43:18.448-05:00Was the Battle of Vega Real Really a Battle, or Just the Beginning of a Spanish Rampage?
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">There is something uncomfortable about the Battle of Vega
Real. If one accepts the accounts of <a name="_Hlk123736546">Bartolomé de las
Casas and Ferdinand Columbus</a>, it should be listed as the first major
battle between Europeans and Indigenous Americans, with the victory going to
the former while sending the latter into ignominious defeat and wretched
subservience.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet the nearly mythological descriptions of the battle, with two hundred twenty Spaniards defeating a hundred
thousand Tainos seems so exaggerated as to make one wonder if it is even
possible to discover what really happened on the plain of Vega Real in March
1495.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fact Columbus had twenty
men on horse, twenty dogs, and European weapons hardly seems enough to overcome
the odds, unless one assumes, as las Casas and F. Columbus both do, that
there was some aboriginal incomprehension about what they were encountering in
arms, animals, and men, some cowardice bred of the shock of the unknown that
infected an immense gathering of people who had come from all over the island
of Hispaniola and confounded their ability to respond effectively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">In response to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035" target="_blank">my article</a> about the dogs Columbus used at
the Battle of Vega Real, I received some emails from readers who questioned why
they had not heard more the battle itself, let alone the horses and dogs that
seemed a factor in the Spanish victory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“A battle that supposedly involved 100,000
indigenous men in 1495 would seem to have been a very important battle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Why haven’t I heard of it?” Something of the
same question was in the back of my mind from the very beginning of my research
into the battle. Let me see if I can add some perspective to this very valid
question.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>What Did Warfare Mean to the Indigenous of Hispaniola? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Given that the Battle of Vega Real was one of the first
military encounters between the Indigenous and the Spanish, we must consider
what warfare meant to the Indigenous of Hispaniola in 1495. Herrera’s frontispiece, reproduced in the <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2022/10/v-behaviorurldefaultvmlo.html" target="_blank">prior blog</a> and my article,
portrays two armies at the beginning of a field battle, each on one side of the
battlefield, weapons raised, dogs being released, cavalry entering from the
side. Would the forces gathered by Caonabo or his brother be organized this
way, as if they fought under the same rules of engagement as a European army?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The illustrator of the frontispiece of the 1601
edition of Herrera’s <i>Historia natural</i> does show another encounter where there was not such a structure to a battle, the attack on
Navidad when Columbus was back in Spain after his first voyage. In fact, the illustrator includes two separate panels, one showing the fortress before Columbus left Hispaniola, and one showing it under attack as he returns on his second voyage (the destruction of Navidad and Columbus's return were not simultaneous but the inclusion of ships of the return fleet made the composition more dramatic). See Figure
1. </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTDMPvPNQ-Ctwwdn5ceM5_hYO1kK-U5c6hFOzxWEjpyciBj1nVEBoHyt1KlArnLwtm73dLDmT_2Yn3s68osOU6MBKuFYlTh6MF_QXc3oSN4rh-d0ILoxE8c_J6HgtENOt7L7tO96z3f0FznxpkXep3Nj4BX-Qlhj9v5ge302p-UDslk229-Qr73Sxn/s2076/Herrera%201601%202%20building%20&%20attack.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1470" data-original-width="2076" height="490" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTDMPvPNQ-Ctwwdn5ceM5_hYO1kK-U5c6hFOzxWEjpyciBj1nVEBoHyt1KlArnLwtm73dLDmT_2Yn3s68osOU6MBKuFYlTh6MF_QXc3oSN4rh-d0ILoxE8c_J6HgtENOt7L7tO96z3f0FznxpkXep3Nj4BX-Qlhj9v5ge302p-UDslk229-Qr73Sxn/w691-h490/Herrera%201601%202%20building%20&%20attack.jpg" width="691" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Figure 1</b>. Two panels from <i>Historia general</i>, Herrera y
Tordesillas 1601, showing (left) the founding of Navidad and (right) its
destruction. The left caption translates: The Admiral says goodbye to King
Guacanagari, building La Navidad. The wrecked Santa Maria, from whose timbers
the fortress of Navidad was built, is shown partially sunken in the water
beside the fortress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Guacanagari, who
controlled the area of the construction, is being carried by his subjects while
Columbus surveys the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The right
caption translates: The Admiral returned and found the tower of Navidad burned
and the Castilians murdered. The Indigenous are shown attacking with arrows and
fire. </p>
</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">As to the Battle of Vega Real in 1495, Ferdinand Columbus states that his father, understanding the
Indigenous character and habits, intended to attack the diverse multitude
scattered throughout the countryside, <i>assaltar da diverse parti quella
moltitudine, sparsa per le campagne</i> (<i>Historie del S.D. Fernando Colombo</i>,
1571, 123; Columbus and Keen 1984, 149, whose translation is less of a literal
transliteration than mine).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Figueredo
(2006) describes the Tainos as giving battle “guided by strategic designs that
demanded rigid organization.” Yet Caribbean warfare was also said to be
“noisy and showy with skirmishes lasting entire days” where “a melee of
personal insults, challenges and combats was the norm” (Glazier 1978).</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Thus, an alternative conception of the encounter at Vega Real might be that the Indigenous gathering on the plain did not array themselves against
the forces of Columbus, perhaps expecting a period of shouting and threats before arms were picked up. Perhaps they thought their overwhelming numbers would demonstrate their
resolve and force Columbus to retreat. Or perhaps many of them were just in their
houses and going about their lives, as they had at other times that Columbus
and his subordinates had marched through Vega Real. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Were There Military Encounters Between Europeans and
Indigenous in 1494 Before the Battle of Vega Real? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">It has already been mentioned that when Columbus returned to Hispaniola in his second voyage, he found that Navidad had been destroyed and the men he left there had been killed. He was told that some of the Spaniards had fought and killed each other and the rest had been killed by the cacique Caonabo (Las Casas 1875, vol. 2, lib. 1, cap. 86, 13; Columbus and Keen 1984, 119), who would continue to be the primary Taino leader opposing Columbus during the second voyage. <br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ferdinand Columbus records what appear to have been
relatively minor skirmishes in 1494 around the fortresses built for gold mining
operations (Columbus and Keen 1984, 129; Wilson 1990, “The First Skirmishes," 82-84). See
Figure 2, showing how the Indigenous were supposed to happily engage in mining and panning gold for the Spanish. They were not, however, particularly happy and manifested their displeasure quickly. An attack on the fortress at Magdelena in late 1494 brought a response that resulted in the
capture of 1,600 Indigenous in the Macoris area, 550 of whom were sent to Spain as
slaves in caravels that departed from Hispaniola on February 17, 1495 (Morison
1963, 226, translating the letter of Michele de Cuneo; Anderson-Cordova 2017, 31). Thus, there was a period where Spanish groups
building fortresses were attacked, but the resistance seems to have been rapid,
spontaneous, and not the collective effort of a group of caciques, as may have happened in March 1495.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc-co-3xKfDlewgIo6TOrZD-quFZ-gqD2YMzxIw2xKqWhSCyiAl0gDiUlKAZNH9nmbNF-TwRUaYfqjqRGAIJp1x4MLtrwC3nR7YNQbxoadjTatR5IdjhNgpzRtBcB2l8UVChMCGMCH_l2guY26TLLvg5x9sjwbz438bIBTP-oLfDvK_Q_1DrEfzQ9p/s820/JCB%2001632%201547.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="338" data-original-width="820" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgc-co-3xKfDlewgIo6TOrZD-quFZ-gqD2YMzxIw2xKqWhSCyiAl0gDiUlKAZNH9nmbNF-TwRUaYfqjqRGAIJp1x4MLtrwC3nR7YNQbxoadjTatR5IdjhNgpzRtBcB2l8UVChMCGMCH_l2guY26TLLvg5x9sjwbz438bIBTP-oLfDvK_Q_1DrEfzQ9p/w686-h283/JCB%2001632%201547.jpg" width="686" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.1732in; text-align: justify;"><b>Figure 2</b>. Oviedo y Valdés, <i>Historia general</i>, recto of leaf 66, Indigenous mining and
panning for gold. JCB Accession No. 01632, Juan de Junta, 1547, Salamanca.</p>
</td></tr></tbody></table><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><br /></span><b>Was the Taino Force at Vega Much Less than 100,000, Say Just 5,000? </b><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The number of Indigenous fighters that Columbus encountered at Vega Real,
said to be 100,000 by both Las Casas and F. Columbus, is often doubted
and sometimes even summarily rejected. Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas (1549-1625),
writing about a century after the battle, takes the number given by the earlier
sources, but rather than simply repeating that there were 100,000 Indigenous on
the plain, he hedges, saying that the natives <i>seemed to</i> amount to one
hundred thousand, <i>todo el parecio ser de cien mil hombres </i>(<i>Historia
general</i>, vol. 1, Decada I, lib. 2, cap. 17, 77; Parry and Keith 1984, 201).
This suggests that a sixteenth-century historian was already uncomfortable with the size
that Las Casas and F. Columbus had given the Taino force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kathleen Deagan and José María Cruxent (2002, 61), in their
brilliant description of the settlement at La Isabela, state that the Taino
caciques organized an insurrection, “allegedly planning to march against La
Isabela with a force more than five thousand strong,” thus ignoring the number
of combatants given by Las Casas, F. Columbus, and, grudgingly, Herrera.
A footnote in their book indicates that they have taken the more credible
number from Pietro Martire d’Anghiera’s <i>De Orbe Novo</i> (Parry and Keith,
1984, 208-210), which describes the force encountered in the Cibao by Alonso de
Ojeda as “about 5000 men [<i>cinco mil hombres armados á su manera</i>],
equipped in their fashion, that is to say, naked, armed with arrows without
iron points, clubs, and spears.” (There is probably a textual error in the 1892
edition of Martire, <i>Fuentes historicas sobre Colon y América</i>, which
reads, at 221, <i>unos mil armadas </i>instead of <i>unos cinco mil armados</i>).
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Martire’s description of Ojeda does not
mention the Battle of Vega Real but I do believe Deagan and Cruxent have
correctly correlated the passage in Martire with events that were either part
of the Battle of Vega Real or that followed immediately after it, but I
would have liked to see further comment on this substitution of numbers. Shoring up the
accounts of Las Casas and F. Columbus by finding correlations in the accounts
of early chroniclers of the conquest who do
not specifically mention a battle at Vega Real produces a more
credible description of the battle, but such jerry rigging simultaneously demonstrates
that there is no single early account that is entirely credible. This, among
other reasons that will be discussed below, probably results in historians
shying away from paying too much attention Vega Real and makes some of them reluctant to anoint the battle as the first major
conflict between Europeans and the Indigenous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Was the Population of Hispaniola Sufficient for an Army
of 100,000 Indigenous Even to Be Possible? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Before accepting the reduced size of Columbus’s opponents at
Vega Real, it might be appropriate to ask whether it would have even been
possible for any group of caciques to gather 100,000 people at the Vega Real in
1495. Michele de Cuneo, in a letter written in 1494, wrote that the cacique Caonabo could
field 50,000 men (Parry and Keith 1984, 89, translating from the Italian, <i>homini
L mila</i>; Cuneo, Lettera [1495] 1893, 99), although this reference is not
mentioned in connection with a specific battle. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">A preliminary question concerns whether the population of
the island in 1495 was sufficient for such a sizeable force to be
possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the first
anthropologists to estimate populations of the Caribbean was Alfred Kroeber
(1934), who placed the population of the West Indies at 200,000, meaning the
population of Hispaniola could not have fielded a force of 100,000.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Angel Rosenblat (1967) put the
population of Hispaniola in 1492 at between 100,000 and 120,000, also too small. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kroeber was attacked for his estimates. Francis Jennings
(1975, 18-19) described him as a “dissident scholar” who “emphatically
rejected the notion that the natives of North America could be considered
capable of so ordering their societies and technologies as to increase their
populations beyond a static and sparsely distributed token representation.”
William Denevan (1996) said that Kroeber’s estimates were the result of
“antithetical conceptions of the quality and capacity of aboriginal cultures
everywhere in the Americas.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Tink Tinker and Mark Freeland (2008) estimated that the
population of Hispaniola in 1492 was just shy of eight million (7,975,000 to be
precise) but accepted that Las Casas was correct in arguing for a precipitous
decline under early Spanish rule, going down to 3,770,000 by 1496, with only
500,000 surviving by 1500 and 60,000 by 1507.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Their numbers thus allow for fielding a considerable force in 1495, but probably not a few years later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Samuel Wilson (1997) finds the number 100,000 implausible,
though he accepts that 15,000 men could have been raised in 1497 (Stone 1990,
97-102). He makes the important observation that famine and epidemics had even
five years after contact considerably reduced the population of the island. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">As I noted in my paper, recent genetics research (Fernandes
et al. 2020) has estimated that the pre-contact population of Hispaniola and
Puerto Rico combined could have been at most 80,000 people. Various assumptions are made in the calculation of population sizes using genetic
analysis, but if this research is upheld, a lower number than some of those
proposed will likely have to be accepted and the estimates of Kroeber and
Rosenblat may be judged not so far off after all. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>If Las Casas and F. Columbus Exaggerated the Number of
Indigenous at Vega Real, Why Did They Do So? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen (1971) summarize some of the
reasons for exaggeration of population estimates in sixteenth-century accounts
(I add numerals in brackets): </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;">[1] The conquistadors wished to
stress the heroism of their feats; [2] the clergy sought to enhance the
importance of their missionary and evangelizing work; [3] pro-Indian
polemicists wished to present a somber picture of the activities of the
conquistadors; [4] enthusiasts of the Indians’ past were eager to idealize or
hyperbolically exalt that past; and [5] obsessive Hispanophiles wanted to
present the Indian as a biologically and culturally inferior being.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Las Casas could have exaggerated for reasons (2) and (3), F.
Columbus for (1), and modern commentators who uncritically accept the numbers
of earlier accounts may belong in (3) through (5), though laziness in questioning
earlier accounts may not implicate any serious bias due to any of these
reasons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>How Many Allies Did Columbus Bring to Vega Real? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Two hundred twenty men against 5,000, accepting an
adjustment to the numbers of Las Casas and F. Columbus, is still a significant
discrepancy and it would seem that even a terrified mass of 5,000 Indigenous
fighters could get off enough arrows to finish off a few hundred men, horses,
and dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As I mentioned in my paper,
the size of Guacanagari’s force allied with Columbus becomes, therefore, a
significant factor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>F. Columbus assigns no number to the allied force, saying only that Guacanagari
was eager to oppress his enemies, <i>Guacaanagari molto disderoso di opprimere
I suoi nimici</i> (F. Columbus, <a name="_Hlk124918641"><i>Historie del S.D.
Fernando Colombo</i>, 1571, 123</a>; Columbus and Keen 1992, 148). Las Casas realizes that
the size of Guacanagari’s force would be relevant, but parenthetically
apologizes that he could not find the number of his vassals, <i>(no pude saber
qué gente llevó de Guerra, de sus vasallos)</i>. (Las Casas, 1875, vol. 2, lib.
1, cap. 104, 97). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Here again, some creativity is required to estimate the size
of Guacanagari’s contribution in men. I noted in my paper that Erin Stone
(2021) takes the number of 3,000, citing Sauer (1966, 89, who only refers to
"Guacanagari of Marien and his men"). The number is, however, quite credible as it is used
by Martire for the indigenous allied force later used by Bartolomé Columbus
against Guarionex (1892, vol. 1, Decada 1, lib. 7, cap. 1, p. 284). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Who Led the Indigenous Forces against Columbus at Vega
Real? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The frontispiece panel of the 1601 edition of Antonio de
Herrera’s <i>Historia general</i> depicts
Columbus facing Guarionex, their respective armies behind them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Were the Battle of Vega Real such a clearcut
European-style engagement, one would expect accounts to identify the two commanding
generals that faced each other in March 1495.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This is not the case, however, and it is doubtful that we can ever be
certain who led the Indigenous forces, or whether they were even under the
command of a single individual. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Las Casas does not specifically name a commander for the
Indigenous forces, though in the chapter that describes the battle he does
refer to Guatiguana, Cacique of Magdelana, who had earlier killed ten Spaniards,
<i>10 cristianos</i> (Las Casas, 1875, vol. 2, lib. 1, cap. 104, 98).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wilson (1990, 89-90) notes that Samuel Eliot Morison,
in <i>Admiral of the Ocean Sea</i>, preferred Guatiguaná as the leader of the
resistance, a possibility Wilson does not reject though he also accepts the
possibility that the leaders were “notorious and nameless brothers of Caonabo.”
The latter would be the current author’s choice, should he be entitled to have an
opinion on this.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wilson, correctly in my
opinion, states that although Guarionex is “consistently considered by all of
the chroniclers to have been the most powerful cacique in the Vega, [he] is not
mentioned at all and seems not to have been involved.” Since Fray Ramón Pané
was sent by Columbus to live among the people of Guarionex in 1495, it is
unlikely this would have worked very well had Columbus and Guarionex been so
hostile to each other in March 1495 (Pané 1999, xxi). It could not be ruled
out that one of the caciques subordinate to Guarionex might have been important
at Vega Real (Kulstad 2008, 39, discussing Maniocatex, more often spelled Manicaotex).
</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ferdinand Columbus indicates that Caonabo, frequently
described as one of the most powerful caciques of the island, was taken alive at
the battle, along with his wives and children, <i>e preso vivo Caunabo,
principal Cacique di tutti loro, insieme co’ suoi figliuoli, & con le sue
donne</i> (F. Columbus, <i>Historie</i>, 1571, 123). It perhaps should be noted
that Keen, in translating the passage, adds a footnote stating the F. Columbus
was in error in that “Caonabó neither participated in nor was made prisoner in
this battle, but was captured by Hojeda by a ruse.” (See Tyler 1988, 164, summarizing the three most common narratives of how Caonabo was captured.) </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">As noted above, Deagan and Cruxent cite Martire to give the
number of Columbus’s opponents at Vega Real as 5,000.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Let us look at Martire’s chronicle more
closely.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He notes that Columbus had
left Hispaniola in 1494 to try to reach the Far East, which he believed to be close, but
after some exploration returned only to learn that Caonabo was besieging Alonso de Ojeda at the
blockhouse of Santo Tomás. Martire says Caonabo would not have begun such a siege had he known that Columbus himself was coming with imposing
reinforcements, <i>no habían levantado el sitio hasta que vieron que venía el
mismo Almirante con gran <a name="_Hlk124770725">escuadrón</a></i> (Martire 1892, vol. 1, Decada 1,
lib. 4, cap. 1, 208; Parry and Keith 1984, vol..2, 208). Martire
says that Caonabo was encouraged by other caciques to expel the Spanish.
Caonabo then left with a large force, probably to attack Columbus, but Ojeda separated
the cacique from his men and brought him to Columbus, where he was seized
and put in irons, <i>fué preso y encadenado</i> (Martire, 210; Parry and Keith,
209). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Martire continues that, after the capture of Caonabo,
Columbus resolved to march throughout the whole island, <i>determinó recorrer
las isla</i> (Martire 1892, cap. 2, 211; Parry and Keith 1984, 209). After a
long passage concerning the Spanish search for gold in Hispaniola, Martire returns
to the events concerning Caonabo, now in irons. Martire states that Caonabo
pleaded with Columbus to protect his territory, which was being ravaged by his
native enemies in his absence. His real purpose, however, was to lay a trap for
Columbus because Caonabo’s brother had assembled five thousand men to attack
the Spanish. Ojeda, however, decided to go on the attack rather
than wait to be attacked and, finding the ground well adapted for cavalry
maneuvers, his horsemen rode down the enemy, who died if they remained in place.
Only those who abandoned their houses for the mountains and rough cliffs
survived, <i>abandonando sus casas se refugiaron en las montañas y en ásperos
riscos</i> (Martire 1892, cap. 4, 222; Parry and Keith 1984, 211).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">This passage from Martire, which I believe ends with a
description of an encounter that was either part of the Battle of Vega Real or followed soon after, does not conform with Las Casas or F. Columbus in that Columbus
himself is not present, but it agrees with them in stating
that cavalry was essential in the victory, though dogs are not mentioned.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It may also give a clue about the type of fighting that was occurring at
this time in that the natives that awaited the battle <i>in their houses</i> were
killed, whereas those who fled might survive. Does this mean that some of the
“battles” described involved not an open field of battle but something closer to the
attacks of the U.S. Army against defenseless villages in the nineteenth century plains warfare?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Perhaps David Traboulay (1994, 26) is correct in arguing that when Columbus, his brother Bartholom</span>é<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">, and Ojeda "took a series of military expeditions all over the island," they were specifically attacking villages that could not pay the tribute Columbus was imposing. <br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Oviedo (1851, vol. 1, lib. 3, cap. 1, 59) also describes
Caonabo’s siege of Santo Tomás, in territory under his control, which involved
assembling archers to attack the fort and burn it. Ojeda, as in Martire’s
account, captured Caonabo, but Caonabo’s brother, who was well respected by the
Indigenous (<i>hombre de mucho esfuerço quisto de los Indios</i>) then gathered
a force of seven thousand men, most of them archers, and began fighting to free
his brother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Oviedo also describes the
panic that men on horseback caused among the Indigenous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ojeda received an additional three hundred
men from Bartolomé Columbus and captured Caonabo’s brother. Later, according to
Oviedo, the focus of the opposition to the Spanish shifted to Guarionex, who
was able to gather fifteen thousand men (Oviedo 1851, cap. 2, 60), whom
Bartolomé Columbus attacked in a night battle in which he captured Guarionex in
1497 (Wilson 1990, 98). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Can the Accounts of Martire and Oviedo Be Correlated with
Those of Las Casas and F. Columbus? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Samuel Wilson (1990, 90) argued that the Battle of Vega Real
“was such a rout that Martyr does not even mention it.” Martire did, however,
mention Columbus’s desire to march across the island and also described
actions conducted by Columbus’s subordinates that may well have been part of
the overall plan that probably began with the Battle of Vega Real. It is not
clear to me why Martire would not want to mention a rout, as Wilson
argues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Another possible explanation</span> is that perhaps the initial attack of Columbus and Guacanagari and
their forces was not a battle where their enemies were engaged and soundly
defeated on a battlefield, but rather a rampage through the villages and fields
of the northern Vega Real with only gradually developing resistance from the
inhabitants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps the soldiers from
whom Las Casas and F. Columbus received their information had altered
memory in such a way as to make the encounters into a single battle of which
they could be proud, rather than a rampage that Oviedo and Martire preferred to
ignore.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Carl Sauer (1966, 88-89) takes his summary description
primarily from F. Columbus, but curiously adds, “This was no proud conquest,
nor was it called such. The easy submission was entitled ‘pacification.’” This
would be a questionable judgment if one were to focus on the accounts of Las
Casas and F. Columbus, which were described as victories against considerable odds, but it is more easily accepted if passages from Oviedo
and Martire that probably relate to the same period are allowed to add a caution
as to how confined geographically or limited temporally the battle was. It might be expected that Martire would have incorporated the account of F. Columbus, given that he knew Fernando as a boy at the royal court and probably tutored him. (Perez Fernandez and Wilson-Lee 2021, 8).<br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Obviously, the inability to identify a single or specific
set of leaders of the Indigenous at Vega Real makes it difficult to imagine
the battle, and the problems in correlating the accounts of Las Casas and F.
Columbus with accounts of probably the same period by Martire and Oviedo,
undermine any faith that a definitive history of the conflicts of 1495 is even
possible. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Where Did the Battle of Vega Real Occur? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Another problem concerns the location of the battle. Ferdinand Columbus says that Columbus encountered the
scattered Indian horde two days’ march from Isabela, <i>due gionate lungi dalla
Isabella</i> (Historie 1571, 123; Columbus and Keen 1984, 149, at least in the 1992 edition,
incorrectly translates as a <i>ten</i> days’ march). Las Casas says that the
Columbus’s march from La Isabela was <i>ten</i> leagues, <i>diez leguas</i>,
from La Isabela (Las Casas, vol. 2, lib. 1, cap. 104, 97). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">If one is to argue that the events around a siege of Santo Tomás
described by Martire and Oviedo contain some of the circumstances that are
attributed to the Battle of Vega Real, then it is to be noted that this would require some interval for the theater of war to move south.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the letter of Michele de Cuneo,
who was at the fortress at Santo Tomás when it was built was built, it was about 27
leagues from La Isabela and only about two leagues from where Caonabo lived
(Parry and Keith 1984, 88-92, translation of the letter). </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">That the Spanish would want to fight within an easy distance
of a fortress is not in doubt. Martire (Decada 1, lib. 4, cap. 2, p 212-13)
says a number of refuges, <i>número los refugios</i>, were added so that they
could be reached quickly in case some violence from the islanders might
threaten the Spanish, <i>por si acaso alguna vez les amenazaba alguna violencia
de los insulares</i>. This would indicate that having encountered hostility,
groups of Spanish men might need a place where they could shelter and perhaps
force some acceptable sense of engagement on the natives, rather than just
enduring sporadic and random attacks. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The frontispiece of Antonio de Herrera’s 1601 edition of <i>Historia
general</i> depicts an attempt by <i>los yndios </i>to destroy <i>la Cruz de la
Vega</i>, which is being defended by Bartolomé Colon, referred to in the
caption as <i>el Adelantado</i>, a title given him by his brother Christopher.
Whether this was part of the Battle of Vega Real or totally unrelated has long been
a subject of historical dispute. A particularly detailed
paper by Apolinair Tejera (1945) includes careful analysis of relevant passages
in Oviedo and Herrera, which refer to crosses erected at fortresses in
Hispaniola with little commentary. Those early accounts were expanded
novelistically, and with significant spiritual elements, by later writers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Apolinair Tejera concluded that Herrera’s reference to
a “miracle of the Holy Cross of the Conception of La Vega” was not dated by
him, and could not be, and that the exaggerated incident of Santo Cerro must
have occurred long after the bloody disaster of Vega Real <i>(el exajerado
incidente del Santo Cerro debió ocurrir much después del sangriento desastre de
la Vega Real</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is curious, however, that the illustrator of Herrera's book included dogs in that battle, just as he had in his depiction of the Battle of Vega Real, though the Spanish forces in the fight over the cross were under Columbus's brother, rather than Columbus. Floyd (1973) accepts
Tejera as correctly separating the incident of the cross from the Battle of
Vega Real.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>See Figure 3.
</p>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="envelope return"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="line number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="page number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Figure 3</b>. A frontispiece panel of the 1601 edition of
Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas’ <i>Historia general</i> (vol. 1) shows a
battle in defense of a cross.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
caption translates: The Indians try to tear down and burn the Cross of La Vega
and the Adelantado [Bartolomé Columbus] fights with them and defeats them, <i>los
indios procuran derribar y quemar la Cruz de la Vega y el Adelantado pelea con
ellos y los vence</i>. Some authors have argued this was part of the Battle of
Vega Real. Detail, John Carter Brown Library, JCB B601 H564h. </p>
</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">One recent researcher<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Stone 2021, 376) argues that upon reaching the plain of Vega Real,
Columbus and Guacanagari “set up a small palisade atop present-day Santo Cerro,
a mountain that overlooks the entire Cibao valley located in Guarionex’s
cacicazgo.” After a day of fighting, the Spaniards retreated to
Santo Cerro.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Waking the next morning,
however, they were surprised to discover that the opposition forces had
disappeared in the night. This perspective on the battle conflicts with
accounts that<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the Tainos were put to
flight after the attack of the horses and dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It also seems to accept that what is generally called the Battle of Vega
Real could as easily be called the Battle of Santo Cerro.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kulstad (2008, 41) notes that those who
distinguish the battles of Vega Real and Santo Cerro usually point out that
Santo Cerro was further from Isabela than Las Casas and F. Columbus would place
the battle. I do not think Stone adequately addresses this difficulty. Guitar (2001) also connects Santo Cerro to Vega Real but provides few references. <br /></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>How Much Do We Know about the Battle of Vega Real? </b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The progression of events during 1495 was, I believe, something like the
following:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Angered by Spanish incursions into his territory and that of
other caciques, but seeing that isolated attacks against the Spanish only led
to defeats, Caonabo begins to assemble a force, which numbers 5,000 or more, to
push the Spanish back and perhaps to remove them from Hispaniola altogether. Guarionex
may have encouraged Caonabo to revolt, and may have been pulling strings to get
other caciques to cooperate with Caonabo, but he probably did not take any battle
leadership role until after 1495.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Columbus returns from his explorations of the Cuba and other
islands in 1494 and determines that threats to mining operations and Caonabo’s
gathering of an army require a coordinated response led by him. Caonabo is
captured by Ojeda, either by a ruse or in a skirmish. It is not impossible that F. Columbus appropriately connects his capture to the first major fighting in Vega Real. Ojeda takes Caonabo to La
Isabela, where he is kept in chains pending being sent back to Spain. A brother
of Caonabo gathers a large force, or supplements the force Caonabo has already assembled, now amounting to about 7,000 men dedicated to freeing Caonabo and continuing his crusade against the Spanish. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Beginning at the northern end of the plain of Vega Real, but
perhaps continuing near one of the defensive fortresses, Columbus, supported by
perhaps 3,000 men under his ally Guacanagari, uses cavalry and dogs and greatly
shocks the Indigenous inhabitants. Caonabo’s brother and other caciques are
taken prisoner at Vega Real or in subsequent actions. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Columbus’s victory is followed by
additional battles and skirmishes led by Alonso de Ojeda and Bartolomé
Columbus, using portions of Columbus’s army. Some battles occur near the
defensive fortresses. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The encounter at Vega Real as presented by Las Casas and
F. Columbus and as depicted in the frontispiece of Herrera’s <i>Historia
general</i> of 1601, was a classic European battle. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although a great number of Indigenous people
had gathered at Vega Real, they may not have been organized as an army prepared
for battle but rather have been more of an intertribal gathering, assembled
to air their grievances and reach a consensus on what to do about the Spanish. They were, in any case, unprepared to respond to the organized force that began to move through them and their villages before they could even understand what
they were facing. Guacanagari would have understood that the forces of Caonabo
or his brother were not expecting what Columbus was about to deliver, and he
could have calculated how to support Columbus, making his army a significant
part of the blow that Columbus landed at Vega Real. He was assuring his own survival and probably seeking the best treatment possible for his people. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Columbus was determined to pacify the island, but he is only
mentioned as participating in the first battle that occurred after he entered
the Vega Real. He could have easily returned to La Isabela after his initial
victory and left the mopping up to Alonso de Ojeda and his brother, which
explains what Martire and Oviedo were describing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The entire island was not pacified, but the
area under Caonabo’s control probably was.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Guarionex was able to mount significant resistance in 1497 (Wilson 1990,
75, 78), but was also defeated and had to flee. Columbus would have continued
to enjoy the support of Guacanagari but may have by then also incorporated some
remnants of the forces of other defeated caciques as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Does this perspective of the battle alter any of my findings
or opinions with regard to the use of dogs at Vega Real? Probably not. The dogs could have been chasing people who were already panic-stricken and might have
had to bite them more at the side than at the front to bring them down. The
dogs might be less apt to encounter weapons from people who were fleeing rather
than going into battle, and the dogs may not have been as easily hit by arrows
since they would not have been moving before a backdrop of armed Spaniards.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They would have been just as useful in these
circumstances.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">I do invite comments to this blog and particularly references to additional sources. Should you not wish to comment publicly, please email me at jensminger@msn.com. <br /></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><b>References</b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Anderson-Córdova, K. F. (2017). <i>Surviving Spanish
conquest: Indian fight, flight, and cultural transformation in Hispaniola and
Puerto Rico</i>. The University of Alabama Press.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Columbus, F. [Fernando Colombo] (1671). <i>Historie de S.D. Fernando Colombo: Nelle quali s'ha particolare, & vera relatione della vits, & de' fatti dell' Ammiraglio D. Christophero Colombo</i>. Venice: Appresso Francesco de' Fraceschi Sanese. <br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Columbus, F., & Keen, B. (1992). <i>The life of the admiral Christopher Columbus by His Son Ferdinand</i>. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">de Cuneo, M. (1893). Lettera. Savona, 15-28 ottobre 1495. In
<i>Raccolta di documenti e study pubblicati dalla R. Commissione colombiana,
pel quarto centenario dalla scoperta dell’ America</i> (Vol. 2, p. 99).
Ministero della pubblica istruxione, 1892-96.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Deagan, K. A., & Cruxent, J. M. (2002). <i>Columbus’s
outpost among the Taínos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498</i>. Yale
University Press.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Denevan, Wi. (1996). Carl Sauer and Native American
Population Size. <i>Latin American Geography</i>, <i>86</i>(3), 385–397. Figueredo, A. (1978). The Virgin Islands as an Historical
Frontier Between the Tainos and the Caribs. <i>Revista/Review Interamericana</i>,
<i>8</i>(3), 393–399.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Ensminger, J. (2022). From hunters to hell hounds: the dogs of Columbus and transformations of the human-canine relationship in the early Spanish Caribbean. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035" target="_blank"><i>Colonial Latin American Review, 31(3)</i>, 354-380</a>. <br /></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Friede, J., & Keen, B. (Eds.). (1971). <i>Bartolomé de
las Casas in history: Toward an understanding of the man and his work</i>.
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Glazier, S. (n.d.). Trade and Warfare in Protohistoric
Trinidad. In <i>Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress for the Study
of Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles</i> (pp. 279–283). Centre de
Recherches Caraibes.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Guitar, L. (2001). What really happened at Santo Cerro? Origin of the legend of the Virgin de las Mercedes. Caribbean Amerindian Centrelink, Feb. 18. http://indigenouscaribbean.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/guitarsantocerro.pdf. <br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Heiser, C. B. (1973). <i>Seed to civilization: The story of
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Herrera y Tordesillas, A. de. (1601). <i>Historia general de
los hechos de los castellanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del mar Oceano</i>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Rosenblat, A. (1967). <i>La Poblacion de America en 1492:
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">Sauer, C. O. (1966). <i>The Early Spanish Main</i>.
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<![endif]-->John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-66138991760803436342022-10-28T09:13:00.187-04:002024-02-19T15:51:37.348-05:00From the Battle of Vega Real to Birmingham: The Lasting Legacy of the Dogs of Columbus<p></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><!--[if !mso]>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
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</p><div style="text-align: justify;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span>John J. Ensminger (2022). <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035" target="_blank">From hunters to hell hounds: the dogs of Columbus and transformations of the human-canine relationship in the early Spanish Caribbean</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Colonial
Latin American Review</i>, vol.31(3), 354-380.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> [open access]</span></span></span></span></p></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The use of dogs against Indigenous Americans began with
Columbus, a technology of repression that was refined by subsequent
conquistadors in the Caribbean and on the Spanish main. The French and English bought
dogs from Spanish breeders in the Caribbean to control Indigenous and slave
populations and Benjamin Franklin suggested that “the Spanish Method” of
deploying dogs would be useful in the French and Indian War (<a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-06-02-0104" target="_blank">Franklin correspondence, November 2, 1755</a>). Franklin later recommended the use of dogs against “our
Savage Enemies” who were attacking troops and settlements in Pennsylvania (<a href=" https://franklinpapers.org/framedVolumes.jsp;jsessionid=node01pny6uoh5rwhtwr3yhxiu5fez25872897.node0" target="_blank">June 4, 1764</a>). </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Thirty-three “bloodhounds” were imported from Cuba,
accompanied by “six Spaniards, their trainers and keepers,” for use in the Second
Seminole War (1835-1842). These dogs, though generally referred to as
“bloodhounds,” clearly did not conform to the modern breed standard: </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">In their build, and general make of
body, they resemble the greyhound, being deep in the chest, rather gaunt, high
in the couplo, with well-turned quarters, and beautiful limbs and fine
sinews—showing by their general contour, much agility. The neck is not as
slender as that of the greyhound—the head is like a cross of the mastiff and
cur—tall slim and handsome—hair close and short. The ear is small and sets up,
with the tips falling down. Their action is fine, and altogether their appearance
rather proud and fierce. (<i>Army and Navy Chronicle</i>, p. 173, 1840)</span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">It is to be noted that three and a half centuries after
Columbus brought dogs to the New World, dogs purchased from Spanish breeders in
Cuba continued to be described as having characteristics of greyhounds. Cuban
dogs also <a href="https://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2012/02/dogs-in-economy-and-operation-of.html" target="_blank">pursued runaway slaves</a> before and during the Civil War in the
Confederacy (Childs 2006). Emancipation ended slavery but it did not end the
use of dogs as instruments of racial repression, as evidenced by events in Selma
and Birmingham in 1963, a practice that has continued into the twenty-first
century (Spruill 2016). </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><b><span>Can This Vicious Canine History Be Laid at the Feet of Columbus?</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Did Columbus bring dogs to the New World in 1493 with
repression of the Tainos in mind?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>John
and Jeannette Varner, in <i>Dogs of the Conquest</i> (1983) preferred to lay
the blame for the use Columbus made of the dogs he brought on the second
voyage not upon Columbus himself but rather on Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, the
cleric given the responsibility of provisioning the voyage:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">In the Indies, Columbus had found a
kind of Eden whose natives seemed to bend willingly to Spanish domination. Thus
he, in all probability, did not contemplate bringing dogs with him even on his second
voyage. The supplies and equipment of the fleet, however, were left by the
sovereigns to the discretion of their personal chaplain, the shrewd archdeacon
of Seville, Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca. This prelate's perception of the true
purpose of the venture and his knowledge of the Spanish character made him
keenly aware that the Renaissance crusaders would find dogs indispensable in a
pagan world. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">…
Such profits as the Crown expected, [Fonseca] knew, would have to be obtained eventually
by means of enforced labor and human bondage; he surmised that, though the Indians
might be as pacific as Columbus had described them, they would not adjust to
manual labor without coercion. In consequence, he made certain that when
Columbus’s splendid fleet sailed in September 1493, it was adequately equipped
with men, arms, and a pack of twenty purebred mastiffs and greyhounds. (Varners,
p. 4)</span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The Varners thus suggest that Fonseca realized that Columbus
was wrong about the passivity of the Tainos he had encountered and that “in all
probability” they would soon become bellicose, at least if they were
compelled to do anything against their will. As a result, he provisioned the
ships with mastiffs and greyhounds (p. 4). Later, in describing the Battle of
Vega Real, the Varners state (p. 8) that “twenty mastiffs” were released upon
the Tainos. Thus, Fonseca’s foresight allowed Columbus to suppress a revolt
that began during his second voyage. Columbus should thank his stars that he
had the brilliant cleric looking out for him. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">There are difficulties with the arguments of the Varners
about why, how many, and what kind of dogs were brought to Hispaniola in 1493.
The documentation of the voyage does not include detailed provisioning lists,
though subsequent voyages to the Caribbean often do. There is correspondence
regarding certain items carried on the ships, which mentions animals,
including horses (some of which were mares), mules, pigs, calves, goats, cows,
and sheep, all of which could be bred on Hispaniola. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">As Antonio Tejera Gaspar (2000, p. 122) has argued, the
absence of provisioning lists and correspondence mentioning dogs means that one
must work backwards from accounts of the Battle of Vega Real to make
suppositions about what dogs and how many were brought on the voyage. Since the
descriptions of the battle say that there were twenty dogs at Vega Real, the
Varners suppose that there were twenty dogs on the ships (though as noted they
describe the ships as carrying twenty mastiffs and greyhounds and the battle as
involving twenty mastiffs).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">What about
breeding the dogs in Hispaniola?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
voyage left Spain in September 1493 and the Battle of Vega Real took place in
March 1495.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is conceivably
sufficient time for dogs bred on the island to be available for the
battle, though they would have been young.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Also, just because twenty dogs were used at the battle, it does not mean
that this must be the number of dogs on the ships as the Varners and others assume.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs could have been brought to guard livestock
that could have had nothing to do with the dogs Columbus used
militarily. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Most of the early accounts also describe the dogs Columbus
deployed at Vega Real as<i> lebreles</i>, greyhounds, or swift hounds. No early
accounts designate them as <i>mastines</i>, mastiffs. Yet because the Varners
believed the purpose of bringing the dogs was to coerce unwilling Tainos, they
have opted to alter the historical evidence, based significantly on images made
much later of dogs in the early Spanish conquest which seem to depict mastiffs,
and thus assert that either many or all of the dogs at Vega Real were mastiffs.
They dismiss the explicit designation of the dogs as <i>lebreles</i> by Bartolomé
de las Casas, whose description of the dogs at Vega Real is the most detailed
we have. Herrera y Tordesillas described the dogs as<i> lebreles de presa</i>. </span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_FLto8otZUlu0ybdevrE6JEHTJUwXUqq8cF6B66OCp9h3VK_XJ6Tftbzt07PPTpv3X9rr32Og-jCf_ai9ymjlbZf5eNYrHLPakUXIr-M2x82WdkUZmHHMVnXCy9zw3GPsbrAxdyrQp2pJebb_uEqXR3uJIBhGfbAoBLJFtSB6INzLqMHW4nWym3St/s540/Gomez%20dog%20attacks%20Moor%202.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="435" data-original-width="540" height="516" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_FLto8otZUlu0ybdevrE6JEHTJUwXUqq8cF6B66OCp9h3VK_XJ6Tftbzt07PPTpv3X9rr32Og-jCf_ai9ymjlbZf5eNYrHLPakUXIr-M2x82WdkUZmHHMVnXCy9zw3GPsbrAxdyrQp2pJebb_uEqXR3uJIBhGfbAoBLJFtSB6INzLqMHW4nWym3St/w640-h516/Gomez%20dog%20attacks%20Moor%202.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></span></p></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span>Figure 1. Lebrel attacking Moor during Reconquista, Tower of
Hercules, Segovia (Courtesy Dr. Gómez de Caso Estrada)</span>.</span></span></p><p>
</p></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The Varners get around explicit designations of the dogs being
lebreles by arguing that references to breeds by writers of the early Spanish
period in the New World were often imprecise. Yet there is considerable
evidence to the contrary, that many of those writers were both precise and
accurate in their references to specific breeds in the time of Columbus
and afterwards.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also to be noted
that the variation in appearance had a wider range five hundred years ago than
it does under modern breed standards for the greyhound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The massive dog depicted in the famous <a href="https://tlachia.iib.unam.mx/aperreamiento/374" target="_blank">“dogging” manuscript</a>, which shows a very large dog executing an Aztec, has been labeled a lebrel by Carlos Carrillo
Rodríguez (thesis, p. 482), and he may be correct. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>An Alternative Theory </b></span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">I believe that the Varners are inaccurate both as to the
reason dogs were brought on the second voyage and as to the type of dogs that
were on the voyage and used at Vega Real. The central argument of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035?cookieSet=1" target="_blank">my paper</a>,
which I will only briefly summarize here, is that the dogs that Columbus
brought on the second voyage were primarily or exclusively large greyhounds, <i>lebreles</i>,
and that the main reason they were brought was to hunt game. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">On his first voyage, Columbus had seen the large rodents
called hutias that were a principal source of meat for the Tainos and for which
the Spanish would need to develop a taste if they were to allow herds brought
from Spain on the second voyage to become self-sustaining.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dogs were, however, generalists that
could also help guard the Spaniards and, like many hunting dogs in late medieval
Spain, could be used against men if necessary. As Gervase Phillips (2021)
argues, most dogs associated with medieval armies were dogs <i>in war</i>, not
dogs <i>of war</i>, and that was likely true here. There is no reason why such
dogs had to be mastiffs, as the Varners assume, as the moving and slashing
skills of large greyhounds were extremely effective in fighting men as well as
in bringing down game. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">By April 1495, Fonseca had realized the importance of
additional military diversity in the dogs being sent to the Caribbean, and
mastiffs and <i>alanos</i>, alaunts, were included in the provisioning orders of
a relief expedition that departed Spain in April 1495, a month after Vega Real.
The provisioning orders for this expedition cannot be used to explain what
types of dogs were sent two years earlier in 1493. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>Critics of the Varners </b></span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The widespread acceptance of the Varners’ description of the
dogs of Vega Real is something of a surprise, given that reviewers of <i>Dogs
of the Conquest</i> following its publication in 1983 were often at pains to
urge caution in taking the book at face value. John Fisher of the University of
Liverpool, in the <i>Journal of Latin American Studies</i> (May 1985, vol.
17(1), 262-63), described the Varners as employing an “uncritical, anecdotal
approach” that gave the impression of being a “work of enthusiastic amateurs
rather than professional historians….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>W.
George Lovell, of Queens University, Ontario, reviewing the book in the <i>Annals
of the Association of American Geographers</i> (June 1985, vol. 75(2), 287-88),
acknowledged that the Varners’ bibliography is “certainly substantive,” but
then notes that some references, specifically mentioning <a name="_Hlk116704821">Bartolomé
de las Casas</a>, “are used uncritically.” Donald Chipman of North Texas State
University, reviewing the book for <i>Arizona and the West</i> (Summer 1984,
vol. 26(2), 184-85) wondered if the publisher had sent the manuscript to
outside reviewers. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Harwood P. Hinton of the University of Arizona, in <i>The
Historian</i> (August 1986, vol. 48(4), 620), was more positive in stating that
scholars “may depreciate the work, but they cannot ignore it.” That has
certainly been true, and it continues to be cited, often to the exclusion of
such footnotes as subsequent scholarship concerning periods, battles, and
individuals, might provide. Amy Turner Bushnell, writing in the <i>Florida
Historical Quarterly</i> (July 1984, vol. 63(1), 99-101), notes that the book
“contains virtually nothing about the breeding of the animals [or] their
training,” and that a “balanced book on the dogs of the conquest is still to be
written.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
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<![endif]--><span>Elizabeth Reitz of the University of Georgia in <i>American
Antiquity</i> (July 1985, vol. 50(3), 710-711) says the Varners “accepted as
accurate all of the Spanish accounts.” With this I disagree. In their
description of the Battle of Vega Real, as argued above and in more detail in
my paper, the Varners dismissed significant aspects of the descriptions of the
battle by Bartolom<span><span style="line-height: 107%;">é</span> </span>de las Casas, who arrived in Hispaniola in 1502 and had spoken to men and probably seen some of the dogs who had been at Vega Real. </span></span></span></p></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>Where Did Columbus Find the Dogs? </b></span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">My paper is not concerned solely with criticizing the
perspectives of the Varners on the types of dogs Columbus brought. There is the
question of where the dogs came from in Europe. The Varners seem to prefer a connection
to the use of dogs against the Moors during the Reconquista, and they may be
right. There are, however, relatively few accounts that mention use of dogs
against the Moors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When I began
researching the dogs of Columbus, I sent emails to eminent historians of the
Reconquista asking where I could find mention of dogs being used against the
Moors (which most of them did not refer to at all in their works beyond a few
footnote references). The responses I got were all to the effect that if dogs
were used, there were only a few times this was recorded, which probably involved
individual soldiers who traveled with their own dogs, not entire an entire unit as happened
at Vega Real. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZwZRuyrmVRo8c7jh0xJ5EOq4Kx7hgtcItkmXAlVnI7GVx-JkEqaFI7isXNz6_UXyUmd9QWTg0MaTDjY9iPIRKiXFywKE2Lx_dMxXVhQ5uZwDXf4uB7Wf3v0Eu_Q4Va5m94yUdkr7T44qtAGwGY5JCqLo7hL_0xD3CFPx-BXtocJi6CnhjOqiGn1zb/s1356/fouilloux%20ship%20of%20dogs.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1245" data-original-width="1356" height="589" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZwZRuyrmVRo8c7jh0xJ5EOq4Kx7hgtcItkmXAlVnI7GVx-JkEqaFI7isXNz6_UXyUmd9QWTg0MaTDjY9iPIRKiXFywKE2Lx_dMxXVhQ5uZwDXf4uB7Wf3v0Eu_Q4Va5m94yUdkr7T44qtAGwGY5JCqLo7hL_0xD3CFPx-BXtocJi6CnhjOqiGn1zb/w640-h589/fouilloux%20ship%20of%20dogs.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></span></p></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Figure 2. <i>La Venerie de Iaques du Fouilloux </i>(1562), imagining the Trojans arriving in Italy with their hunting dogs after the destruction of Troy, but likely showing sixteenth century transport of dogs. Some dogs are leashed.</span></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">At least two other possible sources for the dogs must
receive mention, the Canaries and Corsica.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Varners refer to Pedro de Vera using dogs in subjugating the Guanches (<i>Dogs of the
Conquest</i>, p. xv). Dogs, particularly lebreles, may have been on the
islands for a long time and there may have been breeding operations there.
Antonio Tejera Gaspar (2000) considers this the most likely place from which
dogs were brought aboard the ships, and he also may be right. It would explain
why dogs are not described in provisioning correspondence but did arrive in
Hispaniola.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, there is the
possibility that the dogs and handlers could have been Corsican. Although not
mentioned by the Varners, this possibility was rather popular at the end of the
nineteenth century and cannot be summarily dismissed.<span><b> </b></span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>Map Showing Where Columbus Encountered Native Dogs and Used European Dogs Militarily <br /></b></span></span></span></p><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span>Columbus and participants in his voyages left many accounts of the dogs living with the Indigenous groups they encountered. These locations are marked by the yellow hexagons on the map. Nor was Vega Real the only encounter with the Indigenous where Columbus used dogs militarily against Tainos and other Indigenous populations. Other instances are marked by stars, one on the fourth voyage in 1503 when Columbus sailed the coast of Central America. Another incident in 1503, which is mentioned in my paper, occurred on the island of Saona, off the southern coast of Hispaniola, but did not involve Columbus. </span></span></span></p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b></b></span></span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3cmp8NDRHfN699upD8XrKaV_rr2W7UwqsStFzfxcCnyKHZwiUrh5a_TNbpKAUjlj25wYfH4Ur55prMyriHdg8UXPhAALVr7Dufv5kKAOcTq8rp5MiSqdJQ5GE6Y3Q5UaWO7VUNMf4sk4jRVQurTPBYMSWaYHjH7moY1YdUd9ZhQkY-2eb2MwzLQMA/s3340/Dogs%20in%20voyages%20of%20Columbus%201492-1504.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2163" data-original-width="3340" height="428" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3cmp8NDRHfN699upD8XrKaV_rr2W7UwqsStFzfxcCnyKHZwiUrh5a_TNbpKAUjlj25wYfH4Ur55prMyriHdg8UXPhAALVr7Dufv5kKAOcTq8rp5MiSqdJQ5GE6Y3Q5UaWO7VUNMf4sk4jRVQurTPBYMSWaYHjH7moY1YdUd9ZhQkY-2eb2MwzLQMA/w684-h428/Dogs%20in%20voyages%20of%20Columbus%201492-1504.jpg" width="684" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Figure 3. Dogs in the voyages of Columbus from 1492 to 1504. The map ignores backtracking and minor deviations from the course of some sailings. </span></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]--><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>Recent Research on Movement Perception of Dogs <br /></b></span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Recent research may explain why a hunting style of greyhounds might have been more effectively adapted to warfare against the Tainois than a hunting style of mastiffs</span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span>. In studying the attention that dogs, cats, and humans display to object patterns displayed on a screen, a research team from the laboratory of Adam Miklosi of </span></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span>Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest (Abdai et al. 2022), noticed that when given the choice of focusing on objects in a video screen duplicating a chasing pattern and objects moving independently, dogs, unlike humans, focused on the chasing pattern before focusing on the independently moving objects, whereas humans and cats did the opposite. This may correlate with a tendency of dogs to want to know where their fellow pack members are in relation to a group of prey animals before committing to an attack on a particular prey animal. Humans may focus on the prey first and only worry about interference from another hunter afterwards. Thus, the dogs could have avoided collisions with fellow combatants (both human and canine) and been able to move quickly from one enemy stomach to another, increasing the value of their attacking frenzy. Mastiffs, which spend more time on each attack, would have incapacitated far fewer enemies in the same time interval. <br /></span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>Changes in the Behavior of Dogs and Men</b></span></span></span></p></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">The article I had originally submitted to the Colonial Latin
American Review focused largely on the narrow question of what types of dogs
were used at Vega Real, and why the arguments of the Varners were flawed. The
anonymous reviewers and Kris Lane, editor of the journal at the
time of the review and acceptance, wisely pushed me to extend my perspective to
consider how both the dogs and their handlers changed as the dogs evolved from
being hunters to being war dogs, and from being war dogs to being executioners by dogging, <i>aperreamiento</i>. The latter transition may have begun under Columbus but certainly describes
the use of dogs in executions by Cortes in Mexico. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">In any case, it was not long before the dogs that were being
bred for the occupying Spanish became so aggressive, and probably large and bulky, that most hunters would not have considered hunting game with them. The advantage to be obtained for
increasing the aggression of imported dogs was, however, turned upon the
Spanish themselves as feral populations of primarily European dogs began
attacking the Spanish, who could no longer travel on some islands except in
groups with weapons and armor. Professional hunters were soon receiving
bounties for capturing and eradicating these dangerous animals. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Unfortunately, this evolution of canine aggression was
passed from the Spanish to the French and English and then to the Americans. The
laboratory that early Spanish America provided for the increase in aggression
among dogs and men became a foundation for racial repression in the United
States, with vestiges continuing to this day. While Columbus played a part in
this social and behavioral evolution, he did not initially sail to the new
world with the intention of controlling the Tainos by creating a Spanish terror imposed by dogs. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span><b>References</b></span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: medium;">Abdai, Judit, Uccheddu, Stefanie, Gacsi, Marta, and Miklosi, Adam (2022). <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-022-01643-3">Chasing Perception in Domestic Cats and Dogs</a>. Animal Cognition, 25, 1589-1597. </span><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: medium;">Brito, Tarsis (2024). Between race and animality: <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/review-of-international-studies/article/between-race-and-animality-european-borders-colonial-dogs-and-the-policing-of-humanity/4669195C6F1E712B9518A09B000AAF8B#" target="_blank">European borders, 'colonial dogs', and the policing of humanity</a>. Review of International Studies, published online February 1, 2024. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><a name="_Hlk117825851">Carrillo Rodríguez, Carlos Alfredo</a>
(2010). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/1615805/Chichitlalhuiliztli_Estudio_An%C3%A1lisis_y_Catalogaci%C3%B3n_del_Manuscrito_del_Aperreamiento_Escritura_Mesoamericana_N%C3%A1huatl" target="_blank">Chichitlalhuiliztli: estudio, análisis y catalogación del manuscritodel aperreamiento, escritura mesoamericana náhuatl</a>. Doctoral dissertation, National
School of Anthropology and History, Mexico City.
</span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Childs, Matt D. (2006). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807877418_childs" target="_blank"><i>The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cubaand the Struggle Against Atlantic Slavery</i></a>. University of North Carolina
Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Ensminger, John J. (2022).<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609164.2022.2104035" target="_blank"> From hunters to hell hounds: the dogs of Columbus and transformations of the human-canine relationship in the early Spanish Caribbean</a>. <i>Colonial Latin American Review</i>, 31(3), 354-380. </span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Homans, B. (ed.) (1839). <i>Army and Navy Chronicle, vol. 9</i>.</span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Phillips, Gervase. 2021. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/45589332/_The_Employment_of_War_Dogs_in_the_Medieval_and_Early_Modern_West_British_Journal_for_Military_History_Volume_7_Issue_1_March_2021_pp_2_20 " target="_blank">The employment of war dogs in themedieval and early modern West</a>. <i>British Journal for Military History</i>, 7(1),
2-20. </span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Spruill, Larry H. (2016). <a href=" https://www.jstor.org/stable/phylon1960.53.1.42 " target="_blank">Slave Patrols, ‘Packs of NegroDogs’ and Policing Black Communities</a>.<i> Phylon</i>, 53(1), 42-66.</span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Tejera Gaspar, Antonio. 2000. <i>Los cuatro viajes de Colón
y las Islas Canarias, 1492–1502</i>. Gomera [Canary Islands]: Cabildo de La
Gomera.</span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">
</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;">Varner, John G., and Jeannette J. Varner. 1983. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dogsofconquest0000varn" target="_blank"><i>Dogs of
the Conquest</i></a>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thanks to L.E. Papet for comments and suggestions. By the way, lest anyone think that I somehow suddenly developed the ability to write catchy titles, I should note that the phrase, 'From Hunters to Hell Hounds,' was not my idea. Rather, it was suggested by one of the anonymous reviewers of the article for the <i>Colonial Latin American Review</i>. </span></span></span><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia;"></span></span></p>John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-50965735233667203822020-09-12T06:56:00.000-04:002020-09-12T06:56:45.341-04:00<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">BOOK REVIEW:</span></b><br /></span></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Hazuki Kajiwara, <b>Surviving with Companion Animals in Japan: Life After a Tsunami and Nuclear Disaster</b>. Palgrave Studies in Animals and Social Problems. New York: Palgrave Macmillan (2020).</span> </span></p><p style="text-align: justify;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Japan has the most unique history and profound
understanding of any nation in the world when it comes to the potential of
nuclear power to destroy life. Survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though
thinning, are still heard and on anniversaries of 1945 events remind the
country of the devastation that occurred from nuclear bombs. What happened in
2011, when the fourth largest earthquake in recorded history shook the coast of
northeastern Japan and led to a tsunami and partial destruction of the nuclear
power complex at Fukushima, has an analogy in Chernobyl and rings a frightening
note to residents of the west coast of the United States, always concerned about the
potential for a devastating earthquake to break apart nuclear reactors. Such results, however, will for most
American readers remain a distant horror story. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Cats and dogs were left to fend for themselves after
Hurricane Katrina in 2005, but even the worst weather disasters in the United
States have shorter recovery periods than what followed with the hydrogen
explosions in three of the six nuclear reactors at Fukushima in 2011, with a
complete meltdown at one, leaving some nearby areas largely uninhabited to this
day. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The need to deal with pets after disasters became evident in
rescue efforts following Hurricane Katrina, where rescue rafts were directed
not to take pets on board. Subsequent political pressure exerted by pet owners
in Louisiana and elsewhere, and by well-funded animal welfare groups, was
sufficient to enact the Pet Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act of
2006. Whether U.S. governmental implementation of this legislation will be adequate
in subsequent disasters to protect pets as much as possible has yet to be
tested, but at least a framework has been put in place.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6PGmYe-BEMq8SYn6W9twFPQ3Z7wOrY6ZJbNMPQeRRc2CJ_tNws5-HuuN_nsU8zcCo5otOC-3zo95EfOVZ44f-Z403MzHcnzLUGNNDY9XrpwA8RUZfd2AAIJ1a4VZvJ5iqDf7k7N4unOU/s2048/Kajiwara+Cover+2.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2048" data-original-width="1374" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6PGmYe-BEMq8SYn6W9twFPQ3Z7wOrY6ZJbNMPQeRRc2CJ_tNws5-HuuN_nsU8zcCo5otOC-3zo95EfOVZ44f-Z403MzHcnzLUGNNDY9XrpwA8RUZfd2AAIJ1a4VZvJ5iqDf7k7N4unOU/s320/Kajiwara+Cover+2.jpg" /></a></span></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For a detailed and often gripping description of what
happened with pets and their owners in northeastern Japan in 2011 and afterwards,
we now have <i>Surviving with Companion Animals in Japan: Life After a Tsunami
and Nuclear Disaster</i>, written by Hazuki Kajiwara. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Unfortunately, unlike the
United States, the Japanese government has continued to insist that its
responsibilities only extend to humans caught in such horrible circumstances.
If people have pets, the government encourages the owners to evacuate them when
practical but does not recognize that the owners have any right to keep the
pets with them in temporary, government-provided accommodations. Thus, another
tragedy following the devastating events of 2011, according to Dr. Kajiwara, is
that government policy regarding disaster response remains entirely
anthropocentric, meaning that the same consequences for pets and their owners
could very well happen again if, and more likely when, massive numbers of
people must be relocated because of weather calamities, nuclear power failures,
a biological or environmental disaster, or war.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Dr. Kajiwara, a sociologist at Rikkyo University in Tokyo,
places her analysis of what happened to people and pets following the fourth
largest earthquake recorded since 1900 and the largest ever experienced in
Japan, within the interdisciplinary field of Human-Animal Studies (HAS).She observes that how a society conceives the relationship
between owner and pet “often reflects previously unconsidered aspects of a
society, such as the way power is distributed and embedded in the daily lives
of its citizens.” </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The book amounts to an indictment of a government that has
ignored the significance of the human-animal bond that is so important to the
mental health of a great many of its citizens. Deftly summarizing an extensive
psychological literature, Dr. Kajiwara shows that pet loss often slows the
process of recovering from a disaster. Similarly, for those lucky enough to
keep or later be reunited with their pets, responding to the shared trauma often
deepens the connection pet owners feel with their animals.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Dogs and cats, which make up most of the pets of Japan, have
a long history in the island country. Dogs were present by the Jomon period
(14,000-300 BC), and cats at least since the Nara period (710-794 AD). Dogs
were used as hunters and guards, and cats as eliminators of vermin, though both
also formed social bonds with the people they lived with. As in other
countries, pets became members of families. By 2017, 34% of households in Japan
had a companion animal, but only 23% of households had a child under 18 years
of age, a gap that Dr. Kajiwara says will widen in the future. A 2018 survey determined
there were about 8.9 million dogs in Japan and it has been estimated that
there are nearly 10 million cats in the country. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Until the mid-twentieth century, dogs and cats often lived
most of their lives outdoors, but changes in population density and social
acceptance began to shift in the 1970s and 1980s and most pets now live
indoors. This led to pressures on real estate developers. Only 1% of apartments
sold in Tokyo permitted pets in 1998, but 86.2% do now. Many more statistics
are provided to give the reader a detailed window into the place of pets in
Japanese society, something that is difficult to see on a vacation in Japan,
such as this reviewer experienced for a month in November 2019. (In Japan I had occasion to meet Dr. Kajiwara and in a long discussion encouraged her to pursue turning her thesis into a book.) </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Dr. Kajiwara goes into detail about the horrors of the 2011
tsunami and earthquake, and subsequent nuclear meltdown, which brings into
sharp focus the extent of the disaster with which the government was faced,
with over 400,000 homes completely or partially destroyed. The explosions at
Nuclear Power Plant One in Fukushima blanketed an extensive area that had to be
kept free of nearly everyone. Eight years after the accident, only 23.2% of
residents have returned to the most affected districts, and only 6.2% in towns
close to Fukushima, and about 40,000 former residents remain in evacuated
status. Between 10,000 to 20,000 pets were left behind by evacuated owners.
Less than 1,000 were ultimately rescued. The government did provide for pet
food to be taken into tsunami-destroyed and nuclear-contaminated areas, and set
up facilities where animals could be tested for radiation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Dr. Kajiwara, once a journalist and still a columnist for
Tokyo’s <i>Asahi Shimbun</i>, has a novelist’s eye for detail and drama,
particularly in the descriptions of what happened to people she interviewed
extensively regarding their experiences with their pets during and after the
disaster. She divides these accounts into two general categories, (1) those whose
lives were altered by the tsunami, but who were generally outside of the
nuclear-contaminated zones, and (2) those who were in the nuclear-contaminated
areas. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For the nuclear-contaminated zones, Dr. Kajiwara examines
the experiences of Hitomi Sato, a 56-year-old woman who lived in Fukushima. She
does not jump immediately into Ms. Hitomi’s relationship with her cats and a
dog but spends some beautifully descriptive pages letting us understand this woman: </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 40px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Hitomi has lived with various kinds of animals in the farmhouse since she was small. Hitomi was brought up with warmed goat milk, drinking it through a straw made from a stock of the wheat because her mother didn’t have enough of her own milk. The family always had several cows and brought up their calves with great care and affection. Though Hitomi had a strong attachment to the calves, they were also an important source of income for her family. <br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Hitomi's evacuation had to be almost simultaneous, allowing her now time to search for her pets. Returning
while the area was still high-risk, Ms. Sato finds
her dog but cries because she knows she cannot not take him with her. Anyone
who entered the evacuation zone had to be screened for radioactivity upon
leaving. Eventually the government allowed for the possibility of removing
animals: </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 40px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Owners leashed their animals to a
secure anchor in front of their houses to later be picked up by a prefectural
operative for radiation screening. Smaller animals were caged and placed in
front of the house.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The animals were
then brought back to their owner. When guardians were unable to live with their
pets, the animals would be accommodated at the animal shelter run by the
Fukushima Prefecture Animal Rescue Headquarters. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Hitomi was eventually reunited with her dog in this way,
but in the next year had to suffer the agony of watching him die of cancer. She
continues to search unsuccessfully for her cats.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The final part of the book reviews the theories that have
been argued for creating a legal basis for guaranteeing the survival of pets
and keeping them with their humans after a disaster. Dr. Kajiwara finds most of these theories
inadequate to justify policy decisions. For instance, giving owners rights to
the survival of their animals merely because they are owners of the animals, is
entirely too anthropocentric and fails to consider animals
as anything more than property, making rights as to them little different from
rights to an expensive car or piece of art. She argues that instead “a right positioned
between human rights and animal rights is required.” Therefore, she proposes a
“bonding rights” argument, noting that animals could be regarded as members of
society. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">While Dr. Kajiwara promises to continue to flesh out the
bonding-rights argument in future work, as a lawyer this reviewer was left with
questions as to whether such a concept, as a basis for policy to create
practical legislation and regulation, could work in practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ultimately, there must be a clear
interface between policy and application, between theory and enforcement in the
operation of government. How is a member of society that cannot speak the
language of social governance to be given a voice? If the owner speaks for his
pet, when is the owner replaced in this function if his or her decisions are in
fact not in the animal’s interests? Is a separate group composed of
veterinarians, shelter operators, and owners, and perhaps even non-owners, to
be constituted to determine the best interests of the animals in any given
situation, such as a disaster? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Dr.
Kajiwara points out, even veterinarians are often part of the commercial pet
industry, a point she proves by noting that the Vice President of the Japan
Veterinary Medical Association argued that the governmental recommendations
regarding the evacuation of pets did not presume any right of pet owners to
have a place to bring their pets if they could not find such a place on their
own. Also, who speaks for the strays, abandoned animals, and animals that have
lost their masters to the disaster?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Governmental operations and authority tend to break down in disasters and
putting in place a system that would be complicated and difficult to implement
even in ordinary times seems highly questionable as a policy recommendation. I eagerly await Dr. Kajiwara's elaboration of her solution. <br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">
</span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Although most of the book reads well</span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">—often beautifully</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">—</span></span><span style="font-family: inherit;">it is an
adaptation of Dr. Kajiwara’s doctoral thesis and occasionally suffers from maintaining
certain thesis conventions. Some methodological and
qualification paragraphs would have been best eliminated and do little more
than tell the reader what is coming. While this can be justified in a scientific paper where the writer must detail the order of the evidence
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would be best to just get on with it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Still, there were only a few pages where this reviewer felt inclined to
skip forward, and the overall presentation is effective and often captivating. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Such quibbles are minor however and should not deter anyone interested in the impact of disasters on pets should be sure to put this wonderful volume in the reading queue. Anyone with an interest in pets, who is planning to travel to Japan for the Olympics or otherwise, will find much in the volume that will explain the place of pets in Japanese society. <br /></span></p><br /><p><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
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<![endif]--></p>John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-927130455004028562017-10-02T05:55:00.004-04:002024-02-19T15:41:28.702-05:00The Dog at the Last Supper (Franciscan Monastery, Hvar, Croatia)<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS9M9fiFdCD443tMjwlq-n_PrQgmfvx3K4BiOGN6AczFxLH70NDG_UrcekVbzwEOH_wY7OMO07d8Z9UZq9sg0TsFpvw_704AdBmgP1NPKa1TfU9ju8c-3Re9ARibPWJxQWjt_fw9z8aCw/s1600/Ingoli+dog+w+beggar.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1137" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS9M9fiFdCD443tMjwlq-n_PrQgmfvx3K4BiOGN6AczFxLH70NDG_UrcekVbzwEOH_wY7OMO07d8Z9UZq9sg0TsFpvw_704AdBmgP1NPKa1TfU9ju8c-3Re9ARibPWJxQWjt_fw9z8aCw/s400/Ingoli+dog+w+beggar.jpg" width="283" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Detail of Last Supper of Matteo Ingoli, Hvar</td></tr>
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Matteo Ingoli, born in Ravenna between 1585 and 1587, worked in and near Venice, but died young when a plague swept across northern Italy in 1631. Among the relatively small number of works commonly attributed to him is a Last Supper in a Franciscan monastery at Hvar, Croatia, which I had the opportunity to photograph in September 2017 (no flash was the only restriction at the monastery, which is now a museum). The Last Supper was a theme Ingoli may have painted several times. Another treatment of the subject is in the church of St. Apollinare at Ravenna. As will be discussed further below, the attribution of the Hvar painting to Ingoli continues to be disputed. </div>
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The painting is in serious need of restoration. Ingoli’s current standing among Renaissance artists, however, is probably not such that any institution would easily commit the necessary funds. Nevertheless, the depiction of the Last Supper is unique in including a dog, which can be seen at the extreme right of the painting where the animal comes from behind a pillar next to a beggar lying before the table on which the meal has been served. </div>
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Because of the overly bright flood lights in the room where the painting fills an entire wall, I was unable to get a full shot of the painting that is worth posting here. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Ingoli" target="_blank">Ingoli's Last Supper in Ravenna</a> has been more extensively studied and good photography of it is widely available, but for the one in Hvar I could find no good reproduction of the entire painting online.<br />
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<b>Could There Have Been a Dog at the Last Supper? </b></div>
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No dog is mentioned in any of the gospel narratives of the Last Supper, but the gospel writers were certainly familiar with the presence of dogs at places where people were eating. In Matthew 15:27, a woman says to Jesus that dogs eat scraps that fall from the master’s table, while the variation of the parable at Mark 7:28 refers to dogs under the table eating the children’s scraps. (Such situations need not be accidental. Almost anyone who grows up with dogs remembers slipping something unappealing to a willing accomplice under the dinner table.) </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEaI7ZWPy8lDdOYHhu24bDKhC4JtzPSbf7DFwVuvx76znv2JUUaiBuUvtu_MDbAzlqU96nRiP_P9GjvfdoLcNwsTjlEsIIIBiGoqQhj6WMZwoJOhOC4a-lr-E9KBvHTnuhBI0dp8fceDc/s1600/Rosselli+cat+most+detail.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="1600" height="191" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEaI7ZWPy8lDdOYHhu24bDKhC4JtzPSbf7DFwVuvx76znv2JUUaiBuUvtu_MDbAzlqU96nRiP_P9GjvfdoLcNwsTjlEsIIIBiGoqQhj6WMZwoJOhOC4a-lr-E9KBvHTnuhBI0dp8fceDc/s320/Rosselli+cat+most+detail.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Detail of Last Supper of Matteo Rosselli</td></tr>
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The dog at Hvar has its right leg slightly lifted. Although my eye is untrained in such matters, I am inclined to think this is more a begging posture than an attempt by the painter to suggest that the dog is walking forward. The apostle at the end of the table is preparing to drop something into the bowl the beggar stretches towards him and the dog may be hoping to be the next recipient of the apostle's generosity. <br />
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Who is the sympathetic apostle? The order the figures in Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper in Milan is known from the artist’s notebooks. For da Vinci, the figure on the extreme right was Simon the Zealot, though there is no beggar in his version. Somewhere in the annals of Renaissance research there must be a study of the order of apostles in the countless depictions of the Last Supper, but whether there would be any discussion of Ingoli's painting in Hvar is more than doubtful. Hopefully the joy of visiting Hvar in the summer (with its wonderful beaches and great but reasonably priced restaurants) will appeal to some art historian and the painting will in time receive renewed attention from the art world.<br />
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<b>Other Artists Who May Have Painted the Last Supper in Hvar </b></div>
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The monastery caption to the painting in Hvar notes that the work was formerly attributed to Matteo Rosselli (1579 – 1651). Curiously, Matteo Rosselli painted a <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Last_Supper_by_Matteo_Rosselli#/media/File:Matteo_rosselli,_ultima_cena,_1613-14,_00.jpg" target="_blank">Last Supper (1613 – 1614)</a> and included a cat before the table. Here I have extracted a detail of the cat from a <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Last_Supper_by_Matteo_Rosselli" target="_blank">reproduction posted by Wikimedia Commons</a>. This painting is currently in the Conservatorio di San Pier Martire in Florence. Another painter with the last name of Rosselli, named Cosimo (who, that I can tell on minimal research, was unrelated to Matteo), had, more than a century earlier (c. 1481-2), put two cats at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Supper_(Rosselli)" target="_blank">Last Supper in a panel of the Sistine Chapel</a>. Other attributions of the painting in Hvar include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo_Ponzone" target="_blank">Matteo Ponzone</a> or the school of Palma il Giovane. Ponzone is credible as his brother was archbishop of Split from 1616 to 1640 and he worked much of his life in Dalmatia.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicHoNIQYRBlXfA3dZpPgIK0FzXjPm4nUGLYdcnFMvHyyhKznJIWJ2_BPimqZXsYiOzg6fXnFHKcQtX5rzB7hN_kDlvxG3xI9o-XUJVlQxZu6-wMRfRhDSc2j9TXT1RUlK-ydx5nwUTRaA/s1600/shepherds+with+dog+and+lamb.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="441" data-original-width="702" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicHoNIQYRBlXfA3dZpPgIK0FzXjPm4nUGLYdcnFMvHyyhKznJIWJ2_BPimqZXsYiOzg6fXnFHKcQtX5rzB7hN_kDlvxG3xI9o-XUJVlQxZu6-wMRfRhDSc2j9TXT1RUlK-ydx5nwUTRaA/s400/shepherds+with+dog+and+lamb.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Shepherds with dog on Nativity Facade, Sagrada Familia (Barcelona)</td></tr>
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<b>Dogs in Biblical Scenes </b><br />
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There is a long and honored tradition of placing animals in depictions of biblical events. Both the architect, Antoni Gaudi (1852 – 1926), and the French painter, <a href="http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/works-in-focus/painting/commentaire_id/the-shepherds-arrive-at-bethlehem-10626.html?tx_commentaire_pi1%5BpidLi%5D=509&tx_commentaire_pi1%5Bfrom%5D=841&cHash=9850869145" target="_blank">Octave Penguilly-L'Haridon</a> (1811 – 1872), place sheep dogs with the shepherds coming to the manger in Bethlehem. While Penguilly-L'Haridon modeled the dogs of the shepherds on sheep dogs he had seen with Bedouin herds on a visit to the Holy Land, Gaudi instead used a Catalan sheep dog as his canine model for the Nativity Facade of the Sagrada Familia. There is also a dog on the Passion Facade of the great church in Barcelona, though that one has a much harsher aspect. I photographed both dogs in 2015.<br />
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<b>Conclusion</b><br />
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Art history perhaps focuses too consistently on the great artists, on those with a large opus who have been studied and revered for generations, leaving aside those whose skills were high but who never acquired a reputation sufficient to put their works in the best museums or onto the toniest auction blocks. Such is the case with Matteo Ingoli, whose works make up a short list, and without any current scholar telling the art world that a minor genius has been relegated to undeserving obscurity. Nevertheless, he has done dog lovers a favor by placing a dog in the midst of a pivotal moment in the seminal history of a great religion. </div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-62996139566152091712017-08-25T07:08:00.000-04:002017-08-25T07:08:03.404-04:00Monograph on Dogs of California Aboriginal Cultures Published <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfGRW4GS___cmrwCFsnoE4BOnLBYuDqF-7fsRQ_7KW0nQBbWfduMcILmT9a2VP2DyghyphenhyphenQhki56hMMDuXT5Aspqo2oeFH9lcgciz5jLq8OodVvL6ZUsiO-Z0oQG_HbQHuE1cR2UWwP-rD0/s1600/Ensminger+2017.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1224" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfGRW4GS___cmrwCFsnoE4BOnLBYuDqF-7fsRQ_7KW0nQBbWfduMcILmT9a2VP2DyghyphenhyphenQhki56hMMDuXT5Aspqo2oeFH9lcgciz5jLq8OodVvL6ZUsiO-Z0oQG_HbQHuE1cR2UWwP-rD0/s400/Ensminger+2017.jpg" width="305" /></a></div>
I have completed a monograph, published by the Land of Oaks Institute in the California Cultures Monograph Series (ISSN 2333-9667), which can be downloaded at no cost in iBook or pdf format. Go the the <a href="http://www.californiacultures.org/California_Cultures___A_Monograph_Series/Monographs/Monographs.html" target="_blank">website for the Series</a> and scroll down to the list of monographs. It is the most recent one posted. By drilling down, you will come to a page that offers the two download options.<br />
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What surprised me as I went through hundreds of ethnographic sources was that even by 1900, when Professor Alfred Kroeber began studying the tribes of California intensely, he and his colleagues and graduate students at Berkeley had to rely on historical sources and informant memories to describe what the dogs of the tribes used to look like. Their photographs of Native Americans, which often included dogs, almost invariably showed dogs of identifiable European breeds or mixed breeds, with very little indication of surviving aboriginal canine genetics. This is, of course, consistent with a growing body of genome research indicating limited survival of pre-European contact types of dogs in the Americas. The reasons for the largescale disappearance of most aboriginal canine types are very complex, even within the 83 California tribal groups studied by Kroeber and other ethnographers, including Spanish priests leaving out poison for dogs so that tribes would become more dependent on their missions and genocide of Native Americans and their dogs who were living too close to mining operations. Not all the blame for the disappearance of aboriginal dogs lies with conquistadors, missionaries, settlers, and miners, however, since some tribes began to prefer European dogs for hunting deer and elk, particularly in the northern and mountainous parts of the state.<br />
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This is a topic I will be pursuing on a broader scale for the Americas. <br />
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John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-77381903660449451172016-09-28T06:37:00.001-04:002016-10-16T17:14:01.700-04:00California Supreme Court Brings Flawed Station Identification Procedure Back from Brink of Deserved Oblivion<div class="MsoNormal">
On May 13, 2001, Geraldine Myers disappeared from her home in Riverside, California.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her car was found in Las Vegas, Nevada, but her body has never been found.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Myers was 82 years old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the early hours of June 22, 2001, Myrna Mason, an 84-year-old woman living in the same neighborhood, was raped in her home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bailey Lamar Jackson was arrested the day after the rape, and evidence implicating Jackson in Myers’ earlier disappearance was developed during the investigation of the rape of Mason.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>California v. Jackson</i>, <a href="http://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/4th/13/1164.html" target="_blank">1 Cal.5<sup>th</sup> 269 (2016)</a>.</div>
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There were many strands of evidence regarding the murder of Geraldine Myers and the rape of Myrna Mason, and the connection between the two crimes—the evidence that there was a single perpetrator—was only partially made by the use of trailing dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That aspect of the case, however, will be the sole focus of this analysis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether a conviction would have occurred had the trailing evidence been excluded, as the authors believe much of it should have been, is doubtful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Supreme Court of California, unlike some lower California courts, did not state anything to the effect that, even if the evidence would properly have been excluded, its admission was harmless error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The judicial mantra of harmless error has been repeatedly invoked by courts not wishing to face the fact that scent identification evidence, particularly in the U.S., is often highly flawed, as it was in <i>Jackson</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See, e.g., <i>People v. Mitchell</i>, <a href="http://www.lawlink.com/research/CaseLevel3/80416" target="_blank">110 Cal.App.4<sup>th</sup> 772</a>, 2 Cal.Rptr.3d 49 (2003); <i>People v. Schoppe-Rico</i>, 140 Cal.App.4<sup>th</sup> 1370 (2006).)</div>
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The case is notable for the number of canine procedures used, with the California Supreme Court describing seven procedures involving at least six dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>The Riverside Sheriff’s Department Canine Team </b></div>
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Riverside Deputy Sheriff Coby Webb began training as a bloodhound handler in 1998 and obtained Maggie, her second police dog, in 1999.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maggie completed 20 hours of training at a Southern California Bloodhound Handler Coalition Seminar in July 1999 when she was four months old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She also attended the Colorado Canine Training Academy in September 2000, where she was certified to trail human scent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In April 2001, Webb and Maggie completed 40 hours of training through the Law Enforcement Bloodhound Association.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were also certified by the National Police Bloodhound Association.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Maggie testified that she continued to train Maggie for 10 to 15 hours a week, following trails laid by other officers or volunteers. Since many departments limit paid training time to four hours a week, either the Riverside Sheriff’s Department has a very liberal canine training policy or Maggie was training outside of normal hours.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This should have been a matter of inquiry for defense counsel to make sure that it does not include grooming and other non-training-related activities. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maggie was given “negative trails” in which the dog was scented to an object by someone who had not been in the training area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In such cases, Maggie was rewarded for <i>not </i>trailing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maggie was also trained with double-blind trails, where neither Webb nor the evaluator knew the correct path (and where, presumably, anyone who did know the trail was not visible to the dog while it worked). </div>
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<b>The Trail from Mason’s House</b></div>
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Deputy Sheriff Webb brought Maggie Mae to Mason’s house the morning of June 22, the day of the rape.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She also brought a scent transfer unit and gathered scent from a shoe print in freshly raked dirt outside Mason’s home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She presented the scent pad produced by this process to Maggie, who trailed across the street where a garbage can was found to contain Mason’s purse.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is not specifically stated in the opinion that the purse was found in the garbage can by the dog handler or someone with her, though the fact that the dog was brought back to this point after it became confused may indicate this was the last point that Webb was sure the dog was trailing the scent obtained from the shoe print.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subsequent to reaching the garbage can, Maggie led Webb to the porch of Richard Shrader, a neighbor with whom the defendant, Jackson, lifted weights, then to the back yard of Billie Harris, another woman living in the neighborhood.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Harris’s daughter, Angelina Fortson, was living in the house with Jackson, who was her boyfriend.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the back yard, Maggie “seemed confused and appeared to have lost the trail.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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During testimony, Webb said that the dog’s confusion in Harris's back yard may have been the result of “pooling,” which she described as occurring “when many trails of the target scent overlap at a single location,” which “can occur at the residence of the person who left the scent the dog is trailing.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because of the dog’s confusion, Webb brought the dog back to the garbage can to start over.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The choice of the garbage can is somewhat troubling because the standard practice, when a dog loses a track, is to go back only as far as the closest point at which the dog was known to be trailing or tracking. With the handler standing firm at this point, the dog is allowed to search at full lead length while attempting to re-acquire the track. Alternatively, a sweeping motion can be used to guide the dog into an oblique angle (30<sup>0</sup>-45<sup>0</sup>) intercept in the direction of travel of the last known track point. Both of these methods are sometimes referred to as “casting.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Defense counsel should have inquired as to why this was not done, say at Schrader’s porch or just prior to entering the back yard of Billie Harris. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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This time, Maggie “trailed down the street past the Harris residence and then appeared to have lost the scent.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No explanation was provided in the Supreme Court’s opinion as to why the dog followed a new and apparently unproductive trail from the garbage can where the purse was found. The issue should have been of particular concern to defense counsel. </div>
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<b>Station Identification</b></div>
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Later the same day Webb and Maggie went to the Spruce Street police station, where Jackson was being detained as a result of other evidence concerning the rape.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Webb was asked whether Maggie could eliminate a suspect who had been in the lobby and was now somewhere else inside the station, but Webb was not told where the suspect was or what path he had taken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“In the lobby, Webb presented Maggie with the scent pad collected from the shoe print outside Mason’s house.” Maggie first trailed to one interview room that Jackson was not in, and then to the interview room where he was being held.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was not stated whether Jackson had been in the first interview room or not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the second interview room, Maggie stopped in front of Jackson but, according to the court’s summary of Webb’s testimony, “did not ‘commit herself to jump up on’ Jackson….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Webb testified that when Maggie “gets confused, she will just stop, which tells me she did not know which subject was the possible suspect.”</div>
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Webb apparently vacillated on the significance of Maggie not jumping on Jackson.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the California Supreme Court:</div>
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Webb testified that during training Maggie had been taught to indicate that she had found the person she was trailing by jumping up on them. Webb later testified that it was not necessary for Maggie to jump up on someone to indicate that she had finished trailing. Instead, when Maggie would stop trailing and stand still in front of someone, it was enough for Webb to question that individual to see if “that’s the person we are looking for.”</div>
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Webb also testified that the air conditioning system in the Spruce Street station may have been confusing the dog because a target “scent is going all through the air-conditioning vents.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Webb “had to pull Maggie out of the room, which further suggested to Webb that Maggie had located the person she was trailing.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the dog did not jump up on the suspect, there was no trained final response and the authors believe the evidence of the dog’s interest in either the first or the second interview room was insufficient to justify its admission as evidence of Jackson’s identity as the perpetrator, and was sufficiently speculative and prejudicial as to be inadmissible. </div>
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<b>Jackson’s Description of Throwing a Woman from a Car</b></div>
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During an interview regarding the rape, Jackson described a memory of having thrown a woman from his car.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Police began to suspect that Jackson, who stated that he took Haldol, an antipsychotic medication, and Cogentin, which is used to reduce the side effects of certain antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol, was mixing up memories of the events of Myers’ disappearance with those of Mason’s rape.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jackson thought he could find the place where he had thrown a woman from his car, but a search of the area with a trained dog did not result in any body being found.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is not clear if this was a cadaver dog or a tracking or suspect apprehension dog scented to one of the scent pads produced by the scent transfer unit. In any case, no body or evidence of a body was found and as already indicated, Myers’ body has not yet been found. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Second Station Identification </b></div>
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A second station identification was conducted on June 25, 2001, three days after the first, at a different location, the Orange Street station.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This procedure is described as follows:</div>
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To lay the trail, Jackson was led through the station by Barnes and Johnson from the entrance, around at least two corners, and into a men’s locker room. The detectives sat Jackson on a bench, closed the door, and stayed in the room with him. They were dressed in casual clothing, while Jackson was wearing an orange jail jumpsuit.</div>
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Defense counsel should have explored whether Barnes and Johnson could have themselves have been laying scent from the crime scenes, having sat beside Jackson in a cruiser (as they likely were on June 22), or having been in contact with objects that Jackson himself may have come in contact with.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The continued presence of the officers in the room meant the procedure was not double-blind.Jackson was also the only black man in the locker room and wore handcuffs in addition to the orange jumpsuit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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As to Webb’s preparation for the procedure, the Court states the following:</div>
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Webb testified that she asked the detectives: “'Can I please have three turns to make sure Maggie is committed to trailing, and I need to have it where there’s no air conditioner on and I don’t know where the subject is.'” Although she did not know the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_7052_312_1"></a>path that Jackson took through the basement, she did need to know “where the subject had walked into the building.... to match the trail with the scent item or not match, I needed to point [Maggie] on a trail. So I just needed to know where the person first walked into the building.”</div>
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It is not clear why Webb could not have scented the dog outside the building, walked her to each entrance, and seen where the scent was picked up by the dog, which would have verified the dog's willingness to trail outdoors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In any case, on the sidewalk outside the station Webb presented Maggie with a crumpled manila envelope that had been found on Myers’ bed, inside of which a sterile gauze pad had been placed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> The first trailing on June 22 had involved scenting Maggie to odor taken from a footprint with a scent transfer unit. It was not explained if the footprint had been deemed made by someone other than a perpetrator, perhaps because of the lack of clear identification during the first station procedure. The fact that a second station identification was conducted after a first was unsuccessful may also indicate that, at this stage of the investigation, the sheriff's office was concerned that not enough non-canine evidence might be found to convict Jackson or force a plea deal. </span><br />
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It is not clear why the gauze pad was placed inside the envelope since crinkling up an envelope as trash will leave substantially more odor of the person doing the crinkling on the outside of the envelope than the inside.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It should have also been investigated whether Barnes, Johnson, or others had touched the envelope.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The envelope had been sprayed with ninhydrin to test for fingerprints before it had been placed in a Ziploc bag with the gauze pad.This would not have been a problem with the footprint scent, and resulted in efforts to discount the effects of ninhydrin on the dog's ability to take a scent from the envelope, as will be described further below. </div>
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It took Maggie 10 to 15 minutes to trail from the starting point [at one entrance], around both corners that Jackson had turned, to the locker room. When Webb opened the locker room door, Maggie walked past the detectives, walked down the row where Jackson was seated, and put her paws on the bench and her head next to his chest. Webb testified that this indicated that Jackson’s scent was on the manila envelope.</div>
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At a later point in the opinion, the Court's description of these events differs somewhat, saying that "Webb lost sight of Maggie when the dog turned the corner to walk down Jackson's row." Also, instead of saying that Maggie's paws were on the bench and her head next to Jackson's chest, the court in its second description says that when Webb reached the row where Jackson was seated, "she saw Maggie jump into Jackson's lap." The inconsistency of these descriptions was not explained. </div>
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The defense objected that “the presence of the two detectives in the locker room transformed the Orange Street trailing into a hybrid of a trailing and a scent lineup,” using the terminology employed by Professor Andrew Taslitz in his famous <i>Hastings Law Review</i> Article, “<a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2013/09/pointing-gestures-and-false-alerts.html" target="_blank">Does the Cold Nose Know? The Unscientific Myth of the Dog Scent Lineup</a>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The California Supreme Court rejected the argument:</div>
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Although Barnes testified that there were communications personnel in another room in the basement while Maggie was trailing, Jackson does not argue that their presence transformed the trail into a scent lineup, nor does he argue that as a general matter dog trailing can only be reliably conducted in areas where other people are not present. Crucially, at no point was Maggie presented with a line of multiple people or objects and asked to distinguish among them; instead, the detectives and Jackson were waiting in different <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_7047_433_1"></a>parts of the locker room. Webb testified that she could not see Jackson when she followed Maggie past the detectives and did not see him until she turned the corner to watch Maggie jump into his lap.</div>
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This defective logic misses the fact that there is an entire history of distinguishing between tracking or trailing and interacting with individuals who might be found at the end of the trail, a logic that has infused the scientific development of scent lineups and which more astute courts have seen as meaning that a dog’s interaction with an individual at the end of a trail can be influenced by factors other than an identity of scent between the individual at that point and the odor with which the trailing procedure began. Dogs, for instance, can distinguish emotional expressions of human faces, and it is likely that someone like Jackson would have a different type of expression on his face than would officers near him. See Muller et al. (2015). Dogs Can Discriminate Emotional Expressions of Human Faces. <i>Current Biology, 25(5)</i>, 601-605; Cuaya et al. (201<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">6). OurFaces in the Dog's Brain: Functional Imaging Reveals Temporal Cortex Activation during Perception in Human Faces. <i>PLoS/One, 11(3)</i>, e0149431.</span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">While one cannot control many variables in a real-world trailing or tracking situation, it was the realization that variables could be defined in scent identifications, and thus controlled, that led to the scientific tradition of scent identification procedures, specifically lineups, that have been refined by Adee Schoon, Tadeusz Jezierski, and recently by Barbara Ferry. </span>(See Tadeusz Jezierski, Scent Lineups: Variables in Procedures and Statistical Verification, chapter 19 in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Canine-Olfaction-Science-Law-Environmental/dp/1482260239" target="_blank"><i>Canine Olfaction Science and Law</i></a>.) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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The Court was apparently not apprised of research, some of which has been <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2010/06/car-bomb-fragments-hold-enough-scent.html" target="_blank">discussed here previously</a>, indicating that dogs that follow trails with high statistical success have lower success rates at the end of these trails when they are presented with a choice between several individuals and are expected to identify the individual who left the trail that they had correctly followed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That one individual in a room is wearing a jumpsuit and is in handcuffs is an obvious invitation to cueing by the handler, which does not need to be a conscious manipulation of the leash.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See Ensminger and Papet, <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/cueing-and-probable-cause-research-may-increase-defense-attacks-and-judicial-skepticism" target="_blank">Cueing and Probable Cause</a>, article online at Michigan State University College of Law’s Animal Legal & Historical Center, as well as <a href="https://www.crcpress.com/Police-and-Military-Dogs-Criminal-Detection-Forensic-Evidence-and-Judicial/Ensminger/p/book/9781439872390" target="_blank"><i>Police and Military Dogs</i></a>, Chapter 6 at 96.) </div>
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Webb was asked—whether on direct or cross examination is not stated—whether the first trailing at the Spruce Street station may have influenced the result at the Orange Street station.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Court quotes her reply as follows:</div>
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“No. We run numerous trails. An example, like this month I believe I’m up to 14 callouts. So I change scents, I mean, almost on a daily basis. And she—I’ve never seen her able to remember something—a trail of somebody else. I’ve never, ever seen that.”</div>
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The defense expert, Dr. Lisa Harvey, whose testimony will be discussed in more detail below, also testified that dogs trained to trail human scent will not follow a scent simply because they have been asked to follow the scent on past trails. Trainers of tracking and trailing dogs, however, when using a prior scent for testing a dog's ability to avoid cross-tracks of other scents often use prior odors as a proof. Many dogs, particularly newer dogs, will follow a previously encountered scent rather than maintaining focus on the correct trail. </div>
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<b>Ninhydrin</b></div>
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The fact that the envelope used to scent the dog at the Orange Street station procedure had been sprayed with ninhydrin raised the possibility that a dog might not be able to reliably follow a trail upon being scented on an item that had been so treated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This possibility was subjected to field experiments by two experts for the prosecution, Maryland State Trooper Douglas Lowry and Dr. Lisa Harvey. Lowry used one dog for his experiment, while Harvey used three. Dr. Harvey has conducted some of the most important trailing research in the last twenty years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both experts concluded that the presence of ninhydrin on an envelope would not significantly alter a dog’s ability to detect a human’s scent on the envelope and follow a trail of an individual who had put the scent on the envelope. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Apparently no research was cited regarding the effect of ninhydrin as a masking agent for odor detectible by dogs, so the need was felt to conduct field experiments to provide at least tentative (though unrefereed) evidence that ninhydrin would not interfere with a dog’s ability to trail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results are not surprising. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Waggoner et al. (1998 SPIE Proceedings) notes that “although the detection performance of dogs is susceptible to being perturbed by the presence of an extraneous odor, it takes a large or even very large amount of this odor in relation to the amount of target odor for this effect to be realized. The extent of this effect depends on the nature of the substances.”</div>
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<b>Pre-Trial Motion for Kelly Hearing on Canine Evidence</b></div>
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Before trial, the defense moved for a hearing on the admissibility of the canine evidence under <i>California v. Kelly</i>, 17 Cal.3d 24, 549 P.2d 1240 (1976), which defines California’s <i>Frye</i> requirement with regard to scientific evidence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Kelly</i> requires that (1) the scientific technique involved be “generally accepted as reliable in the relevant scientific community,” (2) the witness testifying concerning the technique and its application must be “a properly qualified expert on the subject,” and (3) “the person performing the test in the particular case used correct scientific procedures.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, California case law provides that “<i>Kelly</i>/<i>Frye</i> only applies to the limited class of expert testimony which is based, in whole or in part, on a technique, process, or theory which is new to science and, even more so, the law.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Quoting <i>California v. Stoll</i>, 49 Cal.3d 1136, <a href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2607539/people-v-stoll/" target="_blank">783 P.2d 698 (1989)</a>.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Relying particularly on <i>California v. Craig</i>, 86 Cal.App.3d 905, <a href="https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2178114/people-v-craig/" target="_blank">150 Cal.Rptr. 676 (Ct.App. 1978)</a>, the Supreme Court of California concluded in the present case: </div>
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Scent trailing evidence is not so foreign to everyday experience that it would be unusually difficult for jurors to evaluate. Jurors are capable of understanding and evaluating testimony about a particular dog’s sensory perceptions, its training, its reliability, the experience and technique of its handler, and its performance in scent trailing, such as performed in this case.</div>
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The Court also argued that it was “unlikely that a juror would believe that dogs are scientifically infallible….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This presumption that juries are largely neutral to canine evidence and participation in trials should, in the opinion of the authors, be subjected to sociological research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See discussion of jury influence in “<a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">Cases and Statutes on the Uses of Dogs by Witnesses While Testifying in Criminal Proceedings</a>” on the website of the Animal Legal & Historical Center.) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The effect of dogs is known to advertisers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>See Lancendorfer, K. M., Atkin, J. L., & Reece, B. B. (2008). Animals in Advertising: Love Dogs? Love the Ad! <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296307001889" target="_blank"><i>Journal of Business Research, 61(5)</i></a>, 384-391.</div>
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On the issue of trained canine fallibility, the Court referred to the testimony of State Trooper Douglas Lowry, an expert witness for the prosecution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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On cross-examination, Lowry testified that in practice, he observed dogs change their trail from an older scent to a newer scent, and that he observed this more often with newer dogs. He also testified that dogs, like people, have good days and bad days, as well as days when they simply do not want to work.</div>
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The fact that dogs can change what they are trailing is one of the reasons for a frequently mentioned trailing requirement that a dog be put on the trail during the period of its reliability.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since there were samples that preserved the scent of the crime scene, the issue becomes whether the scent remained in sufficient strength to be used for a trailing activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This issue is particularly relevant to the station identifications performed by Harvey four years after the crimes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Harvey’s Station Identification Procedures in February 2005</b></div>
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After the defendant was found guilty, but before his sentence was imposed, there was a penalty phase that had to be repeated because the jury deadlocked in the first penalty trial.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During this penalty-phase retrial, Dr. Harvey testified concerning two additional station identifications she performed in February 2005.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These procedures were performed in the San Bernardino police station, where Jackson had never been before.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The purpose of the procedures was, according to the Supreme Court, “to determine whether Jackson’s scent was on a gauze pad that had been stored with the envelope recovered at Myers’s house.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was not stated, and perhaps not explored yet again, whether Jackson may have been brought to the station and taken to a location by officers who themselves could have been bearing the suspect's scent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A video of the procedures was shown to the jury and is summarized by the Court as follows:</div>
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First, Dr. Harvey scented her dog, Shelby, off the gauze pad that Traughber had placed inside the envelope found on Myers’s bed in June 2001. Shelby trailed through the sally port, smelled three doors, and indicated that she wanted to go through one of them. On the other side of the door, she trailed down a corridor and indicated she wanted to go through one of two doors. Shelby arrived in another corridor containing eight locked jail cells. Shelby smelled all eight and then stood still in between the seventh and eighth cells. The door of the eighth cell was opened; Shelby went inside, smelled the detainees, and walked out again. The seventh cell, containing Jackson, was opened; Shelby went inside, smelled Jackson, and walked back out. Dr. Harvey testified that this was not an identification “to her satisfaction.” Dr. Harvey further testified that she “felt that Shelby had a good trail” but was being “rather lazy.” Because Shelby “was not trying to trail out of that area” and “was going around and around in circles,” Dr. Harvey opined that “that smell that she was looking for was in that area, but for some reason she just refused to make an identification.”</div>
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So the dog, given a choice of eight cells, could not choose between two of them and the choice was made for her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, because the dog did not leave the vicinity, it was concluded that a match for the scent she had been given was somewhere near. Harvey then repeated the procedure with a second dog:</div>
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Dr. Harvey conducted the same task with her other dog, Dakota. Dakota walked through the sally port and the same series of doors as Shelby had until she arrived on Jackson’s corridor. Dr. Harvey opened Jackson’s cell door, Dakota entered, sniffed around, and walked out again. Dr. Harvey gave Dakota the verbal command “show me,” but Dakota just stood there and whimpered. Dr. Harvey testified that Dakota’s behavior constituted an identification….</div>
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When asked what the dog’s behavior indicated, Harvey testified:</div>
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A. That indicates to me that she was still doing her job; however, she chose to do her job the way she wanted to do it, which was in direct conflict to how I would like her to do it, which is a jump-up.... [E]ach dog, I guess you could say, chooses their own identification, and the handler has to learn that identification from the dog....</div>
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Q. What does Dakota usually do?</div>
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A. Dakota does one of two things. She will either do what you saw her do, or she will do a jump-up identification.</div>
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As with Webb’s dog, a trained final response—assuming the jump-up was trained—was not performed, yet the handler claimed that the dog had made an identification apparently based on an undefined level of interest.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Supreme Court, to its credit, realized that this had not happened:</div>
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Notably, neither Shelby nor Dakota positively identified Jackson. Even though Shelby began to trail immediately, indicating that she had found a match between the scent item and the scent trail, she did not unambiguously alert on Jackson. Instead, she went into and out of two locked rooms, smelling everyone in both rooms, including Jackson. Yet, as Dr. Harvey testified, Shelby did not “choose to make an identification” in her usual way. Likewise, according to Dr. Harvey, Dakota began to trail immediately following the same route, perhaps even a little faster than Shelby. She also sniffed several people <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_7047_468_1"></a>behind the two locked doors, including Jackson. Yet she did not unambiguously identify Jackson. Dr. Harvey testified that she “wasn’t happy with [Dakota’s] identification,” stating that she would “prefer [Dakota] actually jump on them, so I can see a good identification.” Even after being directed to identify, Dakota refused and began to cry and whine. Dr. Harvey testified that she believed Dakota had made an identification, but she had “picked” her own way of making the identification, contrary to her training.</div>
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Harvey acknowledged that dogs, including her own, do make mistakes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the Court:</div>
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Dr. Harvey, on both direct and cross-examination, testified that the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_7047_431_1"></a>accuracy of dogs was correlated with their age, with “veteran dogs” having a success rate of 95 percent, while novice dogs had a success rate of 60 percent. Dr. Harvey also admitted that even well-trained dogs have good days and bad days. When asked if she thought Maggie made mistakes, Dr. Harvey responded, “Oh, yes, I’m sure.” Testifying about her own dog, Shelby, she stated that she could tell “for sure” that Shelby had made mistakes in practices, even if she was not sure of mistakes made out in the field.</div>
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Despite acknowledging the possibility of mistakes, Dr. Harvey believed an identification had been made.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This belief was apparently based on the dog’s training:</div>
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“[W]e give consistent training to the dog. Then, when we take them to an unknown area trying to trail someone, as long as the dog is working in the same manner that they worked during training, we are able to say that this is consistent; therefore, we say it is reliable.”</div>
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This comes close to the frequently made argument that even if a dog alerted when it should not have, the dog was not wrong because there must have been residual odor present.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This becomes a means by which the scientific evidence for odor recognition becomes irrelevant because every alert has an explanation that is not the dog’s fault.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the narcotics and explosives detection world, this makes dogs into “<a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/walking-search-warrants-canine-forensics-and-police-culture-after-florida-v-harris" target="_blank">walking search warrants</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>.” Here, if broadly accepted, it could make them into walking identification witnesses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </div>
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Another defect of poorly conducted scent lineups and station identifications occurs when dogs may follow each other because the earlier presence of a dog at the same location has not been antiseptically removed (See Jezierski, above). The Court noted that the failure to make an unambiguous, positive identification “arguably worked to [Jackson’s] advantage.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, the prejudicial effect of allowing an expert to state that the dog had made an identification should have resulted in the evidence being declared inadmissible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Testimony of Dr. Lawrence Myers</b></div>
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The defense called Dr. Lawrence Myers, who has been an expert witness in a number of scent identification cases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Myers testified as to the complexity of human scent and how not knowing what chemicals dogs rely on in trailing humans made it, in the Court’s words, “hard to determine the reliability of an identification based on an older scent in which certain organic compounds may have degraded or otherwise changed.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also testified that the extent to which “various contaminations” might affect a dog’s abilities was unclear.</div>
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Dr. Myers testified that a dog can be cued visually to alert by the fact that only <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_7047_429_1"></a>one person in an array is wearing a bright jumpsuit and handcuffs. He also described how a handler can cue a dog by walking at a different speed, tugging or letting up on the leash, or changing her tone of voice. He said he would be “very concerned” if the target or<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_pp_sp_4645_565_1"></a> decoys in a scent identification task were known to the dog, although he could not say that it would “definitely” affect the outcome.</div>
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This testimony raises questions about Lowry’s use of a decoy that was known to the dog in his ninhydrin experiment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Myers also indicated that a scent lineup where only one of the individuals in the lineup was in a jumpsuit and handcuffs was “not a very good lineup” because the situation involved “a cue that’s hard to ignore.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In rebuttal, the prosecution asked Webb if dogs are “colorblind,” to which Webb said they were.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not entirely true, though dogs have fewer color-sensitive cone photoreceptors than humans do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>See Miller, Wyman (2001). <a href="http://www.vin.com/VINDBPub/SearchPB/Proceedings/PR05000/PR00515.pdf" target="_blank">Vision in Animals-What Do Dogs and Cats See? </a>PP. 27-8 in the 25th Annual Waltham/OSU Symposium: Small Animal Ophthalmology. In any case, a dog would not need to distinguish ethnicity by sight, since there are odor markers, volatile organic compounds, that likely allow them to distinguish members of different races. See Prokop-Prigge et al. (2015). Ethnic/racial and Genetic Influences on Cerumen Odorant Profiles. <i>Journal of Chemical Ecology, 41</i>, 67-74; Prokop-Prigge et al. (2016). The Effect of Ethnicity on Human Axillary Odorant Production. <i>Journal of Chemical Ecology, 42</i>, 33-39. </div>
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Thus, there does not seem to have been any real exploration of what Myers was saying, that the circumstances may point to an individual in a group for a dog just as they may point to that individual for a person looking at the group.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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Canine procedures occurred at least seven times in this case:</div>
<ol>
<li>Trailings of Webb and Maggie May at Mason’s house the morning of June 22, 2001. <i>Result</i>: <span style="font-size: x-small;">first</span> trailing went to backyard of residence where suspect was living; second went elsewhere.</li>
<li>The station identification of Webb and Maggie later the same day at the Spruce Street police station. <i>Result</i>: no alert, dog stopped trailing at suspect but may have been confused by air conditioning.</li>
<li>A canine search of the area where Jackson thought he may have thrown a woman from his car. <i>Result</i>: no body or other evidence found. </li>
<li>The station identification of Webb and Maggie on June 25, 2001, at the Orange Street police station. <i>Result</i>: Court provided two descriptions of the dog interacting with Jackson, one of which indicated an alert. Since dog was scented to envelope that had been sprayed with ninhydrin, subsequent verification of effects of ninhydrin were undertaken. </li>
<li>Trooper Lowry’s ninhydrin-related trailing test using a dog (pre-trial but otherwise undated). <i>Result</i>: ninhydrin found not to interfere with dog's abilities. </li>
<li>Dr. Harvey’s test with three ninhydrin-related trailing tests (also pre-trial), using three dogs. <i>Result</i>: same as 5.</li>
<li>Dr. Harvey’s station identification of Harvey and two dogs in February 2005 (post-trial, between two sentencing trials). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><i>Result</i>: handler claimed identification occurred by Court's description only indicated interest. </span></li>
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In sum, there were three identification procedures, two near the time of the crime and one (involving two dogs) four years after the crime. Only one of the earlier identifications may have resulted in an alert. In none of these procedures were there adequate scientific protocols and in only one station identification was there even arguably a trained final alert. Only in the first procedure, trailing from Mason’s house, was valid evidence produced that should have been admissible, and that evidence was of the route that the perpetrator may have followed upon leaving Mason’s house, and where the perpetrator left the purse taken from Mason. Even in that case, a repeat of the trailing from the garbage can did not confirm the first result so arguably even these events should have been excluded as prejudicial.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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Other non-canine evidence was far more damning than anything the dogs did, including items of both victims found in Jackson’s possession, blood evidence that could be connected with Jackson, his confused memories of having thrown someone from his car, and testimony of other parties placing Jackson near the crime scenes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The cumulative evidence, without any of the station identifications, might well have been enough to convict Jackson.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Inconclusive results from questionable canine procedures should not have been allowed to muddy the evidentiary waters in this case. </div>
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Although the California Supreme Court seems certain that jurors are not overly influenced by canine testimony and will naturally understand that dogs can make mistakes, the Court itself uncritically accepts some claims that should have been subjected to rigorous cross-examination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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[Webb] also described challenging tasks that Maggie had performed. In one instance, Maggie followed the scent of someone who wrote a letter that was mailed to Webb and kept in the freezer for four weeks. In another instance, Maggie identified the person who had handled an explosive device by following the scent that remained after the device was detonated. Maggie performed successfully on this task four times out of six and did not falsely alert on the remaining two trials.</div>
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Although a frozen letter may still have scent that can be detected and used to scent a dog, the circumstances of the trailing were not described (at least in the Court’s opinion), including whether this was a double-blind test.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following the trail of a person who had handled an IED sounds remarkably like a 2010 study published in <i>Forensic Science International</i> and the <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2010/06/car-bomb-fragments-hold-enough-scent.html" target="_blank">subject of a prior blog on this site</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That study did find that dogs could be very accurate in following the trail of someone who placed an IED, but were less accurate in identifying these individuals from others in a room where the “perpetrators” had gone after leaving the devices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Andrew Taslitz, whose brilliant skewering of the scent lineup procedure as employed by American law enforcement remains the most trenchant analysis of the weakness of canine identification evidence, contacted me after reading an <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1664766" target="_blank">unpublished article I wrote with Tadeusz Jezierski and Michael McCulloch</a>, on which we still receive occasional suggestions for new studies to incorporate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Professor Taslitz, sadly no longer with us, then wrote an article that appeared in <i>Criminal Justice</i> in 2013 (vol. 28, p. 4), "The Cold Nose Might Actually Know? Science and Scent Lineups."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The article acknowledged that scientific procedures being developed primarily in Europe might be getting closer to an acceptable level of reliability to be admissible in U.S. criminal prosecutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problem is, and I acknowledged this to the professor and have done so on several occasions, scent identification procedures as implemented in the U.S., including station identifications, are not up to those standards.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A station identification is an artificial trailing situation in which a dog’s ability to follow a scent taken from a crime scene is verified in an environment that has nothing to do with that crime. Unlike the more sophisticated European scent lineups, the dog is not given a choice between scents of numerous individuals of similar economic and ethnic backgrounds, may in fact be following a trail of someone whose scent is closer to that obtained from the crime scene than other scents in the area of the station, may only have one choice of individual to choose from at the end of the trail, and may be allowed to interact with the suspect from a distance away, thereby possibly eliciting a response that can be taken as, or mistaken for, an alert. The procedure makes no more sense than would replacing scent lineups with a procedure by which a human witness would be asked to walk through a police station and identify an individual as the perpetrator from among all the people in the station at the time, with the possibility that the suspect is behind bars and in an orange suit. <br />
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Station identifications also encourage cueing, particularly when the target individual is easily distinguishable from others in the vicinity, such as by being handcuffed or in prison attire or both as in this case. It is not double-blind to third parties since the suspect is under arrest and individuals holding him may have to be advised that the station identification being conducted, and even if they are not told about it in advance, they are likely to understand what is happening and that it is intended as an identification. Scent identifications are also seriously flawed because they do not involve antiseptic protocols as are required in more rigorous European procedures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The station
identification procedure has never been subjected to rigorous scientific
analysis precisely because it is itself not capable of rigor, and no
doubt because it is largely confined to a few trainers in one state. </span><br />
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Nevertheless, the California Supreme Court saw no problem with letting such evidence in and has just given life to a bogus procedure that, fortunately, at this point in judicial history, seems largely to confined to several police departments in Southern California.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Hopefully the Court's poor reasoning will not infect other judges. </span></div>
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This blog was written by John Ensminger and L.E. Papet.</div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-12729990508212291622016-07-11T11:04:00.000-04:002016-08-03T06:14:34.128-04:00Does a Facility Dog that Accompanies a Child Witness to the Stand Have to Be Trained as a Service Dog? A Growing Number of State Legislatures Say Yes<div class="MsoNormal">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggetAp91TEcIuJLBacHPU_5Ha9JCRppArDmOV370YWQoz562fUVsqlRU5s6_K4j1gfCqcf5h8L6VE9q5ZDauE2MdgGgAms7dQgULx4vL5yEpz3h5knIfF4GyrdfE-sg99-tSFItjLK40U/s1600/Only+Witness+for+the+Defense.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggetAp91TEcIuJLBacHPU_5Ha9JCRppArDmOV370YWQoz562fUVsqlRU5s6_K4j1gfCqcf5h8L6VE9q5ZDauE2MdgGgAms7dQgULx4vL5yEpz3h5knIfF4GyrdfE-sg99-tSFItjLK40U/s320/Only+Witness+for+the+Defense.jpg" width="286" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Only Witness for the Defense</td></tr>
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There is no doubt that service dogs learn skills that are useful when it comes to designing a training program for a facility dog whose function is to remain calm at the side or feet of a child or vulnerable witness testifying in a criminal prosecution, often facing a defendant accused of having abused the witness. Many service dogs are trained to remain close to their handlers while they are working, such as guide dogs wearing a halter. Psychiatric service dogs may be trained to press against the side or back of a person with PTSD when they sense the person's anxiety level rising. Yet service dogs are generally adapted to a single master, with whom they may spend most of their lives. Therapy dogs are taught to remain calm when visiting a series of patients in a hospital or residents in a nursing home, often sitting before them or at their sides for minutes, perhaps an hour on a home visit. Facility dogs move from witness to witness as needed. Even many pets are comfortable with remaining beside a master or member of a family for a long period of time, often reducing someone's anxieties without any training at all. Does there need to be a single type of training, administered by trainers accepted into a single national training organization, to create a facility dog? I do not believe so, but many state legislatures say I am wrong. <br />
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I have updated my <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">online article</a> on the website of the Animal Legal and Historical Center of the School of Law of Michigan State University.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have completed this update only three months after the last revision of the article. I felt this was necessary because there have been four new appellate decisions and two new statutes and after three months the article was already out of date.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even as this updated version was being prepared there was an additional case out of Ohio that I will describe at the end of this blog, but which will not be added to the ALHC article until the next revision, hopefully (for the sake of my other commitments and for the sake of the ALHC staff) towards the end of the year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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I have also used this revision of the article to add a table concerning the statutes that have been passed, now by a total of six states: Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, and Oklahoma.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eight states have had decisional law on dogs accompanying witnesses:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>California, Connecticut, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Texas, and Washington, and several of these states have more than one decision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Cases and Statutes Increasingly at Odds</b></div>
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What is particularly dramatic is how cases and statutes regarding facility dogs go in increasingly different directions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of the eight states with decisions, all trial judges have made sure that the dog would behave and threatened sanctions should this not be the case, but none rejected a dog because it was not trained by or registered with any national organization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most opinions gave minimal attention to the training a dog had received, and often used terms like service, therapy, and comfort interchangeably in describing the dog that accompanied a witness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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In contrast, of six states with statutes, two (Hawaii and Illinois) specify that the dog must be a graduate of a member of Assistance Dogs International, a third (Arkansas) says that the dog must be trained by an ADI or similar nonprofit organization without making clear what if anything would be considered similar to ADI, and a fourth (Arizona) does not refer to ADI specifically but lays out an organizational requirement in such a way that only ADI would likely be able to satisfy the test.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Only two states (Florida and Oklahoma) have statutes broad enough to include therapy dogs such as might be trained by Pet Partners, Therapy Dogs International, or Therapy Dogs Inc.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thus, while courts have used a case-by-case, dog-by-dog approach, legislatures are increasingly creating a monopoly for Assistance Dogs International.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Defense counsel in states other than Arizona, Arkansas, Hawaii, or Illinois now have a possible argument that ADI training should be required and that any dog, whether a therapy dog or dog that has satisfied AKC public access tests, should not be allowed into a courtroom because of the possibility of disruption. However, as I discuss ad nauseam in <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">my article</a>, a disturbing number of defense attorneys in these cases have been asleep at the wheel during trial proceedings and only woke up to object when it was often too late at the appellate level.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following table lists the states that have either case or statutory law on the subject.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is to be noted that only the states with statutes have organizational requirements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>States with Court Decisions or Statutes for Facility Dogs: </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Training Described or <i>Organization Affiliation Required</i></span></b></div>
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<b>State</b></div>
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<b>Case Law</b></div>
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<b>Statute</b></div>
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<b>Arizona</b></div>
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<b><i>Assistance dog member of ADI-like organization</i></b></div>
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<b>Arkansas</b></div>
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<b><i>Trained by ADI or similar nonprofit organization</i></b></div>
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<b>California </b>(2 cases)</div>
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Would have been removed if behaved improperly (1); trained in providing support (2)</div>
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<b>Connecticut</b></div>
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Service dog that had not been certified but had reached testing age of two </div>
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<b>Florida</b></div>
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<b><i>Service or therapy dog evaluated and registered according to national standards</i></b></div>
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<b>Hawaii</b></div>
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<b><i>Dog graduate of ADI organization<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i></b></div>
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<b>Illinois</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><i>Graduate of ADI organization</i></b></div>
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<b>Michigan</b></div>
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Therapy dog, also described as support animal </div>
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<b>New York </b></div>
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Trained to sense stress and anxiety and present herself to be petted, unobtrusive presence in courtroom</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Ohio </b>(3 cases)</div>
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Companion dog presumably certified service dog (1); facility dog not otherwise described (2); dog described as facility, companion, or working dog (3) </div>
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<b>Oklahoma</b></div>
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<b><i>Dog trained and certified by AKC, Therapy Dogs International or equivalent organization</i></b></div>
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<b>Tennessee</b></div>
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Service dog with 2 years training in obedience that had passed public access tests and handler had received 2-week training program </div>
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<b>Texas</b></div>
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Service dog available from Child Advocacy Center</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Washington </b>(2 cases)</div>
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Trained by and living with prosecutor, could not growl at defendant (1); dog referred to as a service or comfort dog (2) </div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Total Requiring Organizational Certification or Registration</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">0</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">6</span></b></div>
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If any of the states with decisional law were to pass an organizationally restrictive statute, as New York for one is considering, the case law of the state may no longer be authoritative as to the qualification of a dog accompanying a witness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New York’s proposal (<a href="http://www.assembly.state.ny.us/leg/?default_fld=%0D%0A&bn=A389&term=&Summary=Y&Actions=Y&Votes=Y&Memo=Y&Text=Y#jump_to_Text" target="_blank">A00389</a>), known as Rosie’s Law, would also require that a dog be “a graduate from an assistance dog organization accredited by Assistance Dogs International.” That is not something <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/case/people-v-tohom" target="_blank"><i>New York v. Tohom</i></a> required. </div>
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<b>New Ohio Decision</b></div>
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Some <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>states have had more than one decision, including Ohio. In <i>Ohio v. Hasenyager</i>, <a href="https://www.google.com/#q=Ohio+v.+Hasenyager" target="_blank">CA No. 27756</a> , decided June 22, a 13-year-old girl testified that her great uncle, Bruce Hasenyager, had been inappropriately touching her since she was seven years old. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hasenyager was convicted of rape and gross sexual imposition and was sentenced to an indefinite term of life in prison without eligibility for parole after 20 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On appeal, Haysenyager assigned error to the trial judge’s allowing a facility dog to accompany the victim witness during her testimony.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Ohio appellate court discussed the prior Ohio appellate decision of <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/case/state-v-jacobs" target="_blank"><i>Jacobs</i></a>, which is described in my article. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although Hasenyager argued that he had been prejudiced by the dog’s “movements and interruptions,” the appellate court in <i>Haysenyager </i>stated: </div>
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[T]he trial court record does not reflect that the dog became agitated or that defense counsel objected to the dog’s continued presence due to its purported agitation. It is impossible to discern from the record how the facility dog was behaving during cross-examination, as defense counsel failed to object to the dog’s behavior or cause the record to reflect any behavior that he intended to challenge. Accordingly, we determine that Hasenyager has both failed to preserve this portion of his argument and to meet his burden of supporting such an argument with citations to the record.</div>
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Thus, this is another case where defense counsel did not make a timely objection to the use of a facility dog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Ohio appellate court rejected other assignments of error and affirmed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion </b></div>
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I will let the <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">article on the Animal Legal & Historical Center website</a> speak for itself, but I want to emphasize that I believe this is an area where a rush to legislate is unnecessary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Decisions by judges at all levels have been generally well considered, particularly given the frequent absence of preparation by defense counsel, and there is no trend in the case law that needs to be reversed by legislatures that regard themselves as better informed than the judiciary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, it appears to me that the appeal of these statutes lies in the fact that legislators get to portray themselves as defenders of innocent victims and have their photographs appear in the news media next to very kindly looking dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Admittedly there has not yet been any effective lobbying by any major therapy dog organization, so if the legislative trend continues, anyone doing this work with a therapy dog will have to consider their ability to do so may be time-limited. <br />
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I have to acknowledge a certain respect for those who want to create a bulletproof facility dog for children and vulnerable witnesses, a dog that will be as steady in the performance of its responsibilities as a guide dog is with a blind person or a mobility impairment dog is with a child with cerebral palsy, a dog that will not disrupt the courtroom by standing up to seek attention, bark at the noise of sirens in the street outside the courthouse, that will perhaps press against the child on sensing her anguish. That is a good thing. The domestic dog has been reliably performing functions for us since the beginning of the Neolithic period in Eurasia, however, and quite possibly, it is now argued by a certain group of geneticists and archeologists, for thousands if not tens of thousands of years before that. The amount of training involved for those functions has always been variable from culture to culture, function to function, and we have always accepted the help we could get. The dog that spooked the game was confined to the hut or cave, while the dog that remained quiet until loosed for the chase was taken with the hunter. The amount of training was not the sole issue. The disposition, the inquisitiveness, the ability to look and sniff before barking--in short, the personality of the dog was also considered by the ancient hunter in deciding whether he wanted the animal beside him as he carried his bow and arrow into the forest.<br />
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When tracking of escaped convicts and perpetrators from crime scenes came before American courts, particularly in the American South after the Civil War, the judges who heard the cases were often hunters who owned dogs, sometimes several types of hunting dogs, such as hound dogs to track the deer and greyhounds to run the deer down. They knew the limits of dogs and fashioned practical standards to apply in determining the admission of "bloodhound testimony." That sort of wisdom eventually left the bench, or became so rare that many opinions on tracking dogs and scent identification dogs showed little understanding of how dogs actually operate, and the judges were often persuaded by the party in the case that had prepared most carefully on the canine evidence that was being produced. Here, however, with facility dogs in courtrooms, the judges who have heard the cases are familiar with what is needed for the efficiency and decorum of the courtroom, and I have seen no indication that they have been unable to determine that a dog can help a witness get through an hour on the stand, whether that dog is a service dog trained for two years, a therapy dog trained for six months, or a calm and steady Labrador owned by a lawyer or police officer that has shown its ability to do courtroom work without anything more than a basic obedience class. </div>
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Where police and prosecutors can afford, or get donations that allow, the use of expensively trained service dogs for court work, this use of dogs could grow despite the restrictions on those who can provide the dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For more strapped public agencies, however, it could mean that a dog would not be available when needed even if there is one that could easily be evaluated and found adequate to the task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> I regret that state legislators have begun to insist on interfering with a judicial function that, as near as I can see, has been working quite well. </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thanks to Brad Morris and L.E. Papet for suggestions and corrections. </span></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-33505313640118626952016-05-10T05:47:00.000-04:002016-05-10T05:47:13.736-04:00Transportation Department Gets Specific about Service Animal Relief Areas in Airports<div class="MsoNormal">
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On August 5, 2015, the Department of Transportation published <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-08-05/html/2015-19078.htm" target="_blank">a final rule in the Federal Register</a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>regarding service animal relief areas (SARAs) in airports, requiring that most airports have one such area for each terminal and generally inside the sterile section of the terminal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The requirements of the final rules were described here in a <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/08/all-major-us-airport-terminals-will.html" target="_blank">prior blog</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The Department has now issued a draft of an Advisory Circular “designed to assist airports in complying with the laws and regulations regarding individuals with disabilities,” which includes a set of standards for SARAs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The draft Circular, <a href="http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/1029493" target="_blank">AC 150/5360-14A</a>, which will cancel and replace a <a href="http://www.faa.gov/airports/resources/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentNumber/150_5360-14" target="_blank">prior Circular that was issued on June 30, 1999</a>, adds significant granularity to the relief area requirements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Before making the proposed draft final, the Department “invites interested persons, airport operators, guide dog trainers and handlers, consultants, industry representatives, and all other interested parties to review and comment on the draft.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Comments may be submitted until June 6 on the <a href="https://www.regulations.gov/#%21documentDetail;D=FAA-2016-4796-0001" target="_blank">regulations.gov website</a>. </span>The specific reference to “guide dog trainers and handlers” may not be an atavistic throwback to the days when most service dogs were guide dogs, but may reflect the Department’s express interest in issues of particular importance to individuals who use guide dogs:</div>
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The FAA is also aware that it may be difficult for people with visual impairments to navigate within the SARA. To allow these people to familiarize themselves with the SARA’s layout before entering, the AC recommends placing special signs, maps, and other orienting cues at the entrance to the SARA. In addition, this AC defines the airport terminal for the purpose of helping airports decide on the number and locations of required SARA. To enhance SARAs, the FAA is seeking input on new concept cleaning technology; like nano technology as a potential for self-cleaning SARA.</div>
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The draft Circular deserves the attention of the service animal community, particularly when an airport wishes to place a SARA outside of the sterile area of a terminal. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The draft states that when this is the case, the airport must obtain the agreement of a service animal training organization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, “the airport must … document and retain a record of this agreement, including when TSA prohibits location of the SARA in a sterile area.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Proposed Standards for Service Animal Relief Areas</b></div>
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The draft SARA Standards in the Circular, printed in full in the Appendix at the end of this blog, provide that a relief area “must be located on an accessible route to each terminal.” Although 49 CFR 27.71(2) specifies that there must be “at least one relief area in each airport terminal,” the draft provides that “[o]ne relief area may serve two or more terminals if travel to and from it meets reasonable transit times…,” which means that the “transit time from any gate to a relief area is no more than 15 minutes, based on a walking pace of 200 ft/min,” with “expected time using transportation vehicles and waiting time for an escort, wheelchair, or elevators” being included in total transit time. </div>
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Relief areas “must be designed to accommodate a person using a wheelchair handling a service animal on a six-foot leash.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1991, the Department issued Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities that included diagrams indicating such things as turning space needed for wheelchairs, from which the diagram shown here is taken. </div>
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The draft provides that in “busier locations, a relief area may be sized to accommodate more than one service animal at one time.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Presumably in smaller airports, therefore, relief areas may be so small as to only accommodate one animal at a time. Nevertheless that space would have to be large enough for a wheelchair user to enter and turn around.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Two Surfaces Required in Each Relief Area</b></div>
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A relief area is to have “at least two surfaces.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The draft elaborates:</div>
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One [surface] should be hard and located immediately inside the entrance to allow wheelchair access. This surface should be delineated in a manner to indicate the portion intended to be traversed by people, and the portion intended for animal relief. The other should be an appropriate softer surface, such as gravel or mulch for outdoor areas, and artificial turf specially designed as an animal relief surface, treated to inhibit the spread of disease, for indoor (and outdoor) areas. Other artificial turf is not recommended, as it harbors odors and bacteria. Consider that artificial turf is often perceived as carpet by service animals, making them reluctant to use it. Avoid surfaces such as sand that will stick to paws and be tracked outside the SARA. When using mulch, be sure it is not of a species that can be harmful to animals. Dark colored surfaces should not be used where exposed to the sun, as they can become unbearably hot.</div>
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Fencing may be necessary, particularly for SARAs outside of buildings, which will often mean outside of sterile areas. Nevertheless, the draft suggests that outdoor locations are preferred because “some animals are trained not to relieve indoors.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, strong chemicals are often used to clean indoor relief areas, and some dogs may consequently balk at entering them. (Veronica Morris makes the interesting observation that "before 9/11, it was common for individuals with service animals to be allowed to go onto the tarmac from the gate and potty their animals on the tarmac or on nearby patches of grass, which actually worked out pretty well.")<br />
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SARAs cannot be co-located with a designated smoking area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently the Department feared that some airports would try to combine troublesome smells by putting smoke and dog poop near each other. </div>
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<b>Water Sources and Fake Fire Hydrants </b></div>
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A SARA “must include a sink and a faucet for hand washing,” with potable water as users can be expected to fill water bowls in the SARA. The SARA must have a separate water source for cleaning and must have adequate drainage so that water used in cleaning can run off. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A SARA must include something like a rock or fake fire hydrant “to encourage urination by male dogs.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There must also be poop bags and a receptacle for them, and these must be placed so that wheelchair users can get to them. A sign should indicate that users should clean up after their animals (though as already noted the request for comments raised the possibility of self-cleaning SARAs).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The airport must have signage and maps indicating where SARAs are located. “Braille signing must be installed adjacent to the side of doors and gates opposite the hinges.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Airports are encouraged “to adopt state-of-the-art technology (e.g., smart phone applications) as it becomes available.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Tweaking the Definition of Service Animal</b></div>
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Throughout the Federal Register 2015 release on service animal relief areas no definition of service animals was provided, and I did not think at the time that any definition was particularly needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It could be assumed that someone at an airport who would be using a SARA would have a service animal that was going to enter the cabin of an airliner (as an animal going into a pressurized and heated hold would have been checked before the passenger entered the sterile area).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, the Department acknowledged that pets and TSA dogs would be using SARAs along with service dogs:</div>
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The final rule also offers the benefits of improved convenience to nondisabled persons accompanied by an animal or pet while at the airport. Although these benefits are not encompassed by the rule’s purpose, individuals traveling with pets or security dogs trained to detect security threats may also find it convenient to use service animal relief areas located in the secure area of the airport.</div>
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Nevertheless, the draft Circular now provides a definition of service animal:</div>
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<i>Service Animal</i>.</div>
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Any guide dog, signal dog, or <i>other animal</i> individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including, but not limited to, guiding individuals with impaired vision, alerting individuals with impaired hearing to intruders or sounds, providing minimal protection or rescue work, <i>providing emotional support</i>, pulling a wheelchair, or fetching dropped items. (49 CFR § 37.3)</div>
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One would expect from the parenthetical at the end of the definition that it follows 49 CFR 37.3 word for word.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It does not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The regulation does not contain the italicized phrase, “providing emotional support.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The 1999 Circular that is being replaced had used the exact definition from 49 CFR 37.3, i.e., without that phrase.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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The reference to emotional support appears to have been inserted by the drafters of the proposed Circular not from 49 CFR at all but rather the Air Carrier Access Act releases of the Department.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For instance, in policy guidance issued in 2003, a service animal was defined, for purposes of assisting airline employees in determining whether an animal qualifies, as “[a]ny animal that is individually trained or able to provide assistance to a qualified person with a disability; <i>or</i> any animal shown by documentation to be necessary for the emotional well being of a passenger.” (68 Fed. Reg. 24878, May 9, 2003)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In that definition, however, and generally in the Department’s ACAA guidance, there is no presumption that emotional support requires training.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The phrase is, in any case, inconsistent with the approach of the Department of Justice, which provides in its basic definition in 28 CFR 36.104 that “the provision of emotional support [does] not constitute work or tasks for the purposes of this definition.” The definition in 49 CFR 37.3 was not original with the Department of Transportation, which adopted it in September 1991 (56 Fed. Reg. 45624, September 6, 1991), but rather was the definition of service animal in the first ADA regulations issued by the Department of Justice in July 1991 (56 Fed. Reg. 35544, July 26, 1991), a definition that for DOJ was <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2010/09/new-access-rules-for-service-animals_15.html" target="_blank">superseded in 2010</a>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus by adding the emotional support phrase to a now outdated DOJ definition, the draft Circular has created an illogical hybrid that requires training but allows providing emotional support as sufficient to qualify an animal as a service animal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Miniature Horses</b><br />
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This effort by the drafters of the proposed Circular to modify the definition of service animal presents another problem, though this one may be temporary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problem comes from a footnote to the tweaked definition, which states the following:</div>
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A public entity shall make reasonable modifications in policies, practices, or procedures to permit the use of a miniature horse by an individual with a disability if the miniature horse has been individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of the individual with a disability. (28 CFR § 35.136).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thus, the Department would acknowledge, as did <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2010/09/new-access-rules-for-service-animals_15.html" target="_blank">the Department of Justice in 2010</a>, that a miniature horse may, much like a dog, fulfill service animal functions, particularly as a guide (28 CFR 36.302(c)(9), as finalized by DOJ in <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-09-15/html/2010-21824.htm" target="_blank">75 Fed. Reg. 56236, September 15, 2010</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The Department of Transportation indicated as far back as 2011 that it might have to consider revising its definition of service animal in light of the revisions made by the Department of Justice in 2010, saying that the “Department will consider whether, in the future, to propose changes to part 37 to parallel the new DOJ definitions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meanwhile, the existing DOT definitions continue in effect.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-09-19/html/2011-23576.htm" target="_blank">76 Fed. Reg. 57924, September 19, 2011</a>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That may be changing, however.</div>
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Neither of the Department of Transportation’s definitions of service animal has a species limitation—either the one in the 2003 ACAA guidance or the one in 49 CFR 37.3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> R</span>eferring to miniature horses as an exception only makes logical sense if the Department of Transportation has a species limitation on service animals, which it does not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In issuing its 1991 rule defining service animals, DOT specifically stated that “[o]ther animals (e.g. monkeys) are sometimes used as service animals as well…. the entity must permit the service animal to accompany its user.” The Department accepts that not all service animals need to be admitted to an airplane cabin, however, and stated the following in 2008:</div>
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[T]he Department has added language to the final rule specifying that carriers need never permit certain creatures (<i>e.g., </i>rodents or reptiles) to travel as service animals. For others (<i>e.g., </i>miniature horses, pot-bellied pigs, monkeys), a U.S. carrier could make a judgment call about whether any factors (<i>e.g., </i>size and weight of the animal, any direct threat to the health and safety of others, significant disruption of cabin service) would preclude carrying the animal. Absent such factors, the carrier would have to allow the animal to accompany its owner on the flight. (<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-05-13/html/08-1228.htm" target="_blank">73 Fed. Reg. 27636, May 13, 2008</a>)</div>
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The reason any confusion here may be temporary is that the Department of Transportation has begun a process of revising its service animal airplane access rules, and the possibility of conforming its rules to those of the Department of Justice is clearly on the table. The Department of Transportation’s initiative with regard to service animal access has been discussed extensively in <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2016/05/committee-appointed-to-consider.html" target="_blank">several blogs on this site</a>. Thus, as with the Department of Justice, the Department of Transportation may be moving towards recognizing only dogs, and perhaps miniature horses, as service animals and the footnote reference to miniature horses may be an indication of where the Department expects its revision process to go in this regard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Meanwhile, however, the occasional monkey, pot-bellied pig, or miniature horse may, if trained to do so, make use of a SARA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conclusions</b></div>
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No specific mechanism is provided for service animal organizations to engage with airports on the design and implementation of service animal relief areas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The regulations may consider it the responsibility of an airport to find a guide or service dog organization that will be willing to give a perspective on or approve plans the airport is considering. Individuals with vision impairments and individuals who use wheelchairs will have somewhat different needs when it comes to design of relief areas, so it is to be hoped that a range of organizations will be able to participate in relief area designs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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Since the Department seeks input from interested parties on the Circular, though allowing only a month to submit comments on the <a href="https://www.regulations.gov/" target="_blank">regulations.gov website</a> (by entering Docket No. FAA-2016-4716), a guide dog or service animal organization wishing to be involved in the design and creation of relief areas in an airport should consider submitting a comment expressing this interest and thereby put the airport (through the FAA) on notice of its availability. As previously noted, this must be done by June 6. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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It appears the drafters of the Circular inside the Department of Transportation are hedging their bets by massaging the definition of service animal to take into account changes that may be coming to the Department’s longstanding acceptance of a broad range of species as service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the moment, however, a service animal relief area cannot be presumed to be one that will only be used by dogs, or even just by dogs and miniature horses. (No miniature horse lobbying group put itself forward to participate in the Reg Neg process for revising the ACAA rules on service animals, though a capuchin monkey group did submit a comment. I am told by someone associated with this group that service monkeys generally wear diapers during flights and do not require a service area.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thanks to Brad Morris for careful review and correction of the legal issues. </span></div>
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<b>APPENDIX: STANDARDS FOR SERVICE ANIMAL RELIEF AREAS</b></div>
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A.1 <b>General. </b></div>
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The SARA standards below have been developed in collaboration with nationally recognized service animal training organizations and groups of users of service animals. </div>
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A.2 <b>Number. </b></div>
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SARA must be located on an accessible route to each terminal. One relief area may serve two or more terminals if travel to and from it meets reasonable transit times as defined in paragraph A.3. </div>
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A.3 <b>Transit time. </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The design transit time from any gate to a relief area is no more than 15 minutes, based on a walking pace of 200 ft/min. Any expected time spent using transportation vehicles and waiting time for an escort, wheelchair, or elevators is included in this total transit time. </div>
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A.4 <b>Size and shape. </b></div>
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The SARA may be of any shape, but must be designed to accommodate a person using a wheelchair handling a service animal on a six-foot leash. In busier locations, a relief area may be sized to accommodate more than one service animal at one time. </div>
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A.5 <b>Surfaces. </b></div>
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A relief area should have at least two different surfaces. One should be hard and located immediately inside the entrance to allow wheelchair access. This surface should be delineated in a manner to indicate the portion intended to be traversed by people, and the portion intended for animal relief. The other should be an appropriate softer surface, such as gravel or mulch for outdoor areas, and artificial turf specially designed as an animal relief surface, treated to inhibit the spread of disease, for indoor (and outdoor) areas. Other artificial turf is not recommended, as it harbors odors and bacteria. Consider that artificial turf is often perceived as carpet by service animals, making them reluctant to use it. Avoid surfaces such as sand that will stick to paws and <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>be tracked outside the SARA. When using mulch, be sure it is not of a species that can be harmful to animals. Dark colored surfaces should not be used where exposed to the sun, as they can become unbearably hot. </div>
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A.6 <b>Fencing. </b></div>
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Fencing or another suitable barrier, with an accessible gate/entrance, adequate to contain service animals must be provided.</div>
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A.7 <b>Plumbing. </b></div>
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The SARA must include a sink with a faucet for hand washing. Water must be potable, as it will often also serve as a drinking water supply to fill bowls supplied by service animal handlers. A separate water supply must be included for use in cleaning the surface. The surface must be constructed with adequate drainage to facilitate regular cleaning. </div>
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A.8 <b>Location. </b></div>
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Outdoor locations are preferred, as all service animals are trained to use outdoor relief areas. While some service animals are trained not to relieve indoors, at some terminals it may not be feasible to establish an outdoor relief area within the sterile area. In such cases, the relief area will have to be constructed indoors. SARA must not be co-located with a designated smoking area. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A.9 <b>Weather protection. </b></div>
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Outdoor SARA must include weather protection from sun and precipitation. If the SARA is close to operating aircraft, protection from jet blast and prop wash must be provided. </div>
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A.10 <b>Scent. </b></div>
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The sense of smell is much more acute in animals than in humans. This can be a help or a hindrance in encouraging service animals to use a relief area. Pheromone-scented surfaces or devices can be beneficial, while disinfecting chemicals with strong odors can be detrimental. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A.11 <b>Accessories. </b></div>
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The SARA, at a minimum, must include: </div>
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1. A three-dimensional device (e.g. rock or fake fire hydrant) to encourage urination by male dogs.</div>
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2. Animal waste bags. </div>
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3. A waste receptacle. </div>
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<b>Note: </b>The disposal bags and receptacle must be located just inside the entrance to the SARA on an accessible route and at a height reachable by wheelchair users.</div>
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A.12 <b>Wayfinding and Signage</b> </div>
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A.12.1 Signage Standardization is desirable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The sign shown in Figure A-1, with or without accompanying text, may be used with directional arrows to guide users to the SARA. The signage, when used, must be included in airport layout maps and in wayfinding instructions provided throughout the airport. In addition, signing at the SARA should indicate the following: </div>
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1. The need for handlers to clean up after animals;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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2. The location of waste disposal bags, and waste receptacles, hand washing facilities, and any other facilities (e.g. automatic flushing controls); </div>
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3. Instructions for the operation of any facilities; and </div>
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4. Contact information for maintenance and assistance. </div>
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A.12.2 Other guidance. </div>
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Signage should be supplemented with means, including auditory announcements, to guide people with vision impairments. Braille signing must be installed adjacent to the side of doors and gates opposite the hinges. Airports are encouraged to adopt state-of-the art technology (e.g., smart phone applications) as it becomes available. </div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-21623425304466075302016-04-24T10:28:00.000-04:002016-04-24T10:28:41.095-04:00Dog Parks Become a Permanent Feature of the American Landscape<div class="MsoNormal">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAczJ0hpdixRhIiw1H-ueAFLWuFqr2vL8PuAre3rkGY8g3RKGyQ4K6_tSWeAB2K5PbVfvUA0CKAAf5Sf7bOTmqR-tHQFY8bciK34XHGHGXMH7jVJePN2vnAsPIwrxP2pL1Hgyjx8Bn-ME/s1600/Interstate+40+Oklahoma+rest+stop+rules.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAczJ0hpdixRhIiw1H-ueAFLWuFqr2vL8PuAre3rkGY8g3RKGyQ4K6_tSWeAB2K5PbVfvUA0CKAAf5Sf7bOTmqR-tHQFY8bciK34XHGHGXMH7jVJePN2vnAsPIwrxP2pL1Hgyjx8Bn-ME/s320/Interstate+40+Oklahoma+rest+stop+rules.jpg" width="189" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Interstate 40 Rest Stop Rules</td></tr>
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In 2011, Fran Breitkopf and I drafted model dog park code provisions and rules for an article that was posted on the website of the Animal Legal & Historical Center of Michigan State University’s College of Law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The article proved useful to the creators of a number of parks, but we became increasingly nervous about not updating it to take into account legal and social developments in the last five years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We have <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/designing-model-dog-park-law" target="_blank">now revised the article to take into account developments into 2016 </a>. </div>
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Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of new parks have been created since our article was first posted and we expected that legal developments, both legislative and judicial, would mean the original article was seriously out of date.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To our surprise and admittedly our relief, the number of legal developments we needed to incorporate in our discussion was less than we had anticipated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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Most recent disputes we found in searching Westlaw and Lexis-Nexis have been about creating parks, particularly situations where one group of citizens opposed a municipality granting another group of citizens the right to establish a park on a particular site, which the first group of citizens found offensive because of noise, potential pollution from dog waste, proximity to a school or medical facility, or merely because a dog park would be of no interest to the majority of the inhabitants of a community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most of these lawsuits failed to stop the creation of a dog park for the simple reason that too many people saw the need for one and citizen groups were often willing to take on sanitation and other responsibilities to assure the success of the park.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Lawsuits in tort because of injuries from poor design proved to be rare, as were conflicts between users that lasted long enough or became serious enough to result in litigation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dog bites happen but, since many users take their dogs to the parks in order to provide socialization for their animals, the number of serious bites—again, reaching reported litigation—has been fairly low.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Users of dog parks are often successful in shaming those who do not know how to control their animals into keeping them away from the park.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> (It would be an interesting sociological study to analyze whether dog park users are more likely to train their dogs than dog owners generally.) </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1Mcyl-b4t8cx3g9Q9cQHuWrDQZe0-aCy4QYGOZO34GxqpFRaFx8z60MAIvihHyE24ZdRClMN3nlN1E9y3lqYE1VOM8ZEUd1IJhdN4ax9qt3BCGZVSQjAMlfS3fzQuMtGrdYyDxcPE2vY/s1600/advertising+in+WDP.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1Mcyl-b4t8cx3g9Q9cQHuWrDQZe0-aCy4QYGOZO34GxqpFRaFx8z60MAIvihHyE24ZdRClMN3nlN1E9y3lqYE1VOM8ZEUd1IJhdN4ax9qt3BCGZVSQjAMlfS3fzQuMtGrdYyDxcPE2vY/s400/advertising+in+WDP.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Selling Fence Space for Advertising Can Be a Source of Funds</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Obtaining adequate police and animal control coverage for dog parks continues to be a problem for some communities, and may indicate that some states should take a closer look at whether enforcement authority over dog parks is clearly assigned to state or municipal police or to a county sheriff's department. Related to this are situations where animal control authorities have declined to respond to incidents, perhaps because of some doubt as to their enforcement authority inside of dog parks. Here also, however, few such problems have come to our attention.<br />
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In other words, dog parks are working, and we believe that society is increasingly recognizing their usefulness, just as other public places, like graveyards, flower gardens, monuments, town squares, playgrounds, and recreational areas have been part of our landscape since the settling of North America.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> We believe this trend will continue. </span></div>
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We received the help of many parks and citizen groups around the country in writing the piece for the Animal Legal & Historical Center, many of which are referred to in the footnotes to the article. We invite readers who become aware of developments they believe should be included in our discussion to <a href="mailto:jensminger@msn.com" target="_blank">email us</a>. Thanks again to everyone who has helped with this project and good luck to those who are attempting to build new parks in their communities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-64502669946892533332016-03-28T07:24:00.001-04:002016-03-29T09:31:57.841-04:00If Your Dog Doesn’t Alert, We Can’t Search the Car, So Let's Call that Jump an Alert: Florida v. Harris Doesn't Throw Out Many Sniffs, but This One Had Too Many Flaws<div class="MsoNormal">
Gregory Heald was stopped for a traffic infraction on July 16, 2015.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the stop, a K-9 team performed a sniff of the vehicle, which led to a search during which police discovered narcotics, paraphernalia, a firearm, and a cell phone with incriminating information. Heald moved to suppress the evidence found in his vehicle as fruit of an illegal search.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although the federal court for the Western District of Arkansas determined that the officer stopping Heald had reason to prolong the stop, the court also determined that the search of the vehicle violated the Fourth Amendment. <i>U.S. v. Heald</i>, <a href="http://www.leagle.com/decision/In%20FDCO%2020160301672/U.S.%20v.%20HEALD" target="_blank">No. 5:15-CR-50064-001</a>, 2016 WL 797587 (WD Ark., February 25, 2016).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A concerned citizen of Springdale, Arkansas, began calling police to tell them about suspicious activity at a neighbor’s house, activity that suggested the occupant might be engaging in drug trafficking. The police put the house under surveillance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The police followed a silver Toyota Camry that had been parked in the driveway of the house, and which the concerned neighbor said she may have seen loaded with several bags taken from the house.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After stopping at a market, the driver of the Camry committed several minor traffic infractions, for which the police stopped the car. Equipment in the police car captured both video and audio of the stop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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After calling dispatch with license and registration information on the driver, Gregory Heald, Officer Guillermo Sanchez asked to search the Camry, but Heald denied the request.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sanchez asked if Heald had anything illegal in his vehicle, which according to Sanchez made Heald nervous.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sanchez asked the dispatcher to send a K-9 team but was told that the on-duty team was busy and that he would have to wait for an off-duty team to arrive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the other detectives on the scene suggested that Sanchez get Heald out of the car and engage him in small talk until the K-9 team could arrive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The K-9 team arrived about 26 minutes after the stop began.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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During the interval before the K-9 team arrived, Sanchez asked Heald why he was sweating so much and Heald replied that it was hot and that he smoked two packs a day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Heald acknowledged that he had been charged in Colorado with “conspiracy for meth.’”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Heald declined to grant permission for a search of his person.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sanchez eventually told Heald that they were waiting for a K-9 unit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At 4:22 p.m., Officer Edgar Hernandez arrived with his K-9 partner, Bosco, and within two minutes they began their open-air drug sniff.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Bosco</b></div>
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Bosco’s history is described by the federal district court as follows:</div>
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Bosco is a 3 or 4 year-old German Shepard [sic] that was imported from Hungary by Criss Gardner, the owner of Von Klein Stein Working Dogs in Sherwood, Arkansas. Bosco attended Gardner’s Working Dogs school beginning in February or March of 2015 to learn to be a narcotics detection dog. After 8 to 10 weeks of training, Bosco’s handler, Officer Hernandez, began training with him at the Working Dogs school. Their training together included detection of methamphetamine, in addition to other types of drugs. Bosco was trained to signal the presence of narcotics with a passive alert. This means that when Bosco detects the scent of drugs, he is supposed to sit or lie down. Bosco and Officer Hernandez both performed well at the school. Consistent with this performance, Bosco’s SPD training records from April 20, 2015 and May 27, 2015 indicate that he correctly located methamphetamine during training, and his training logs from the months of June and July of 2015 show satisfactory performance across the board.</div>
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Bosco generally worked at night.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In ten situations in which he had alerted, drugs were found nine times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The one time nothing was found involved a driver who admitted that he had recently smoked marijuana in his vehicle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The afternoon that Bosco and Hernandez were called to perform a sniff, despite the fact they were off-duty, is described by the court as being very hot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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On July 16, 2015, Officer Hernandez was off-duty at Wal-Mart when he was asked whether he and Bosco could perform an open-air drug sniff on Heald’s vehicle. While Officer Hernandez was at Wal-Mart, Bosco was in the backyard at Officer Hernandez’s house, in over 90-degree heat. Officer Hernandez drove home from Wal-Mart, parked in his driveway with his windows rolled up, turned off his vehicle, and went inside to change into his police protective gear. After he changed into his gear, he brought Bosco out to his vehicle and put him in the back seat. He noticed that the vehicle was hot, and that Bosco was hot. Additionally, the air conditioning did not work well in his vehicle, so the ride from Officer Hernandez’s house to Heald’s vehicle was hot for Bosco as well. In short, Bosco was very hot by the time he got to Heald’s vehicle, and he was not accustomed to working in such conditions, as all of his previous shifts were during the cool of night.</div>
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Although 90 degrees is hot, the dog was in a back yard and not working, and it would not automatically be expected that this should have prohibited working.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If it did prohibit working with this particular dog, the handler’s knowledge of this limitation should have been explored further.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>The Long Sniff </b></div>
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The court notes that when Hernandez and Bosco arrived at the location where Heald’s car had been stopped, Bosco was panting and his tongue was “drooping out of his mouth.”The court gives additional detail:</div>
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The sniff begins on the front driver side of the vehicle. Officer Hernandez—at this point and frequently throughout the search—uses his hand to guide where he wants Bosco to sniff. As he later testified, this is a method to keep the K-9 focused, and whenever he employs the method, it means that Bosco is not focused on the sniff….<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the first pass by the driver side, Bosco pays no attention to the car. On the second pass, Bosco follows Officer Hernandez’s hand when he flicks his wrist through the open front driver-side window, and briefly places his front paws on the window opening. Officer Hernandez next leads Bosco on an uneventful trip around the back and passenger side of the vehicle, then takes him off camera to down him in the shade. After another brief pass by the passenger side about 30 seconds later, Officer Hernandez again downs Bosco in the shade.</div>
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A handler guiding a dog’s sniff with his hand for a detailed sweep is sometimes an indication that a dog is not fully trained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After spending a minute in the shade, the following happens:</div>
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Officer Hernandez brings Bosco to the passenger side of the vehicle. On this pass, Bosco places his paws on the rear passenger side door, again after Officer Hernandez places his hand there. The team continues around the front of the vehicle, and along the driver side a few times. On the second pass by the driver side, Bosco again puts his paws on the front window opening after Officer Hernandez points to it. On the fourth pass, Bosco does the same thing, again after Officer Hernandez places his hand in the area.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00092038382864_ID0"></a><sup> </sup>After a few more uneventful passes by the rear and passenger side of the vehicle, Officer Hernandez takes Bosco into the shade at the 16:28:20 mark of the video.</div>
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Hernandez told one of the officers on the scene that Bosco was “burning up.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some effort to find water was made but it is not stated that any was found. Three minutes later Hernandez again led Bosco to the Camry. </div>
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Officer Hernandez reinitiates the sniff on the passenger side of the vehicle. Moving around to the driver side, Bosco again places his paws on the window opening. This time, while Officer Hernandez’s hand is tracking along the top portion of the side of the vehicle, he does not motion up towards the opening. After a couple more passes by the rear of the vehicle, Officer Hernandez brings Bosco to the shade again. Around the same time, at 16:32:11, Officer Sanchez’s in-car audio recording picks up a conversation between two unidentified persons. The first asks “did they get an indication yet?” and the second responds that it “doesn’t appear so.”</div>
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Hernandez tries yet again:</div>
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Officer Hernandez reinitiates the sniff on the passenger side of the vehicle at 16:32:16. On his second run down the passenger side of the vehicle, Officer Hernandez keeps his hand low, apparently as a guide to get Bosco to focus on the lower portion of the vehicle. At 16:32:30, while Officer Hernandez’s hand is low, Bosco lies down for an instant. He does this again five seconds later. Officer Hernandez then takes Bosco to the shade, and at 16:33:00 says “he’s not even looking, he’s fucking burning up ... let me run him one more time, but he’s burning up.” Following this statement, the conversation becomes difficult to hear. But, listening in Chambers with noise-cancelling headphones, the Court believes that Officer Sanchez says something along the lines of “I thought it was an alert, like right there” or “I thought it was—what happened right there?”—a reference to Bosco having just lied down twice at the passenger side. It sounds to the Court like Officer Hernandez then responds “well, that’s just to kind of to get him to check [inaudible for a couple of seconds] the car, so it’s not a—<i>not an alert</i>.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00102038382864_ID0"></a></div>
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The description indicates that Bosco may have been lying down from both the fact Officer Hernandez was keeping his hand low, almost like a hand signal to lie down, and perhaps partially from the heat. In any case, there is no indication this was taken as an alert by the handler. The court's description also shows how badly some of the officers involved wanted something to be called an alert, even though Hernandez, as the handler, was the only one who should have been able to call an alert.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hernandez tried one last time:</div>
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Officer Hernandez begins the final run on the driver side of the vehicle at 16:34:40. On the first pass, Bosco does not pay attention to the vehicle. Officer Hernandez then jerks his leash a bit, and runs Bosco down the driver side again, this time using his hand as a guide. As Officer Hernandez passes by the open front window, he again flicks his hand in the window. After a short pause, Bosco jumps into the vehicle through the window. This happens at 16:34:49. At 16:34:55, Bosco honks the vehicle’s horn. Bosco jumps back out the window at 16:34:59. This essentially concludes the open-air drug sniff.</div>
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After this, Hernandez can be heard in the audio saying, “I’m fucking debating it because he’s not suppose to jump in cars like that—<i>nunca</i>,” using the Spanish word for never.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, a minute later Sancez announced that “we’re gonna search,” and he proceeded to do so.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The court noted that “Officer Hernandez chose to omit Bosco’s jump from his written report and instead wrote that Bosco provided a final indication on the passenger side of the vehicle,” which was not a reference to the jump but rather to the dog’s lying down several minutes earlier, which the audio indicates was not being recognized as an alert at the time it happened.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The search revealed:</div>
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<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>two plastic baggies with methamphetamine</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>one meth pipe</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>syringes</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>one scale</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>firearm (in trunk)</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "symbol"; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>cell phone (in trunk)</li>
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Heald was arrested at the scene.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subsequently he was indicted by a grand jury for intent to distribute methamphetamine and for being a felon in possession of a firearm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A superseding indictment added a charge of possession of a firearm in furtherance of a drug trafficking crime. </div>
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<b>Bosco’s Alert Insufficient to Create Probable Cause </b></div>
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The federal district court found that Officer Sanchez “had the reasonable suspicion of criminal activity necessary to prolong the duration of Heald’s seizure beyond the time necessary to investigate a traffic infraction.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The case, however, fell apart because of the circumstances of Bosco’s sniff. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The court began its analysis of the sniff by reviewing the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in <i>Florida v. Harris</i>, 133 S.Ct. 1050 (2013), noting that Justice Kagan had allowed that “circumstances surrounding a particular alert may undermine the case for probable cause.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The district court found no fault with “Bosco’s (or Officer Hernandez’s) training and certification records,” but it did have a problem with “the circumstances surrounding Bosco’s supposed alert….”</div>
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To begin, Bosco had never conducted a single sniff in the field during the day time, let alone in over 90-degree heat…. Add to this the fact that Bosco had been in Officer Hernandez’s backyard in the heat for some time that day, and then travelled in a hot car before arriving to the scene, and any reasonable person would begin to question Bosco’s ability to reliably perform.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00182038382864_ID0"></a><sup> </sup>Indeed, Officer Hernandez himself testified that on a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being concerned that Bosco was about to die, he was at a 7 that day…. Moreover, Officer Hernandez knew that the heat was in fact affecting Bosco’s performance. He stated at the time that Bosco was “fucking burning up” and “not even looking.” … This cause for concern was, ironically, at least somewhat corroborated by the Government’s own expert. Criss Gardner testified that, in viewing the MVR, he “immediately could see a dog that was overheated,” and that the high heat would “absolutely” affect Bosco’s performance or actions…. Remarkably, after Mr. Gardner had commented that Officer Hernandez appeared frustrated with Bosco, he stated that “most dogs that get frustrated or really want to get out of the heat, they will give you a sit response in some cases. Again, you know, they will try to sit to appease the handler.” …<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00192038382864_ID0"></a> In other words, an overheated and frustrated dog, like Bosco was that day, is prone to giving false alerts.</div>
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The court noted that the duration of the sniff was “unusually long,” and said that while this was “normally an innocent factor,” here it indicated that “as the minutes passed, Bosco’s exposure to the heat became prolonged, and so his ability to perform continued to diminish.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Training May Not Have Been Adequate</b></div>
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Jumping through a window was not how Bosco was trained to alert.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather “he sits or lies down to display final indication when he detects the presence of narcotics.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Officer Hernandez was uncertain about whether Bosco’s leap even constituted an alert. He stated to Officer Sanchez that he was “fucking debating it” because Bosco is never supposed to jump in cars…. The Court believes that a reasonable person would no doubt share Officer Hernandez’s skepticism. An overheated dog exhibiting a new and untrained behavior is not a shining example of reliability.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00212038382864_ID0"></a></div>
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Defense counsel, in moving to exclude the canine evidence, had correctly noted that the jump through the window might have been an indication the dog was not properly trained:</div>
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Additionally, it appears that the K-9 was not adequately trained. According to Officer Hernandez, “Bosco” jumped inside the vehicle through the open driver’s side window. As Officer Hernandez noted, “Bosco” was not trained to jump inside cars. This activity calls into questioning the K-9’s training. Moreover, while the K-9 in this matter appears to have received training approximately three months prior to participating in this case, the training logs do not appear to log any false detections which is suspicious. The records do not reflect the amount of substances the K-9 is trained in. The records also appear to show that the K-9 only logged two days of training in narcotics detection on the exterior of vehicles prior to participating in this case, with only one of those days involving methamphetamine detection. (brief in support of motion retrieved from Pacer)</div>
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The failure of the dog to alert to methamphetamine should also have received more analysis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A dog trained on methamphetamine produced by one cooking method will sometimes not alert to methamphetamine cooked another way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is advisable to train on pharmaceutical grade materials when possible, but Bosco may have been trained on batches of methamphetamine cooked in the same way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Handler Changes Position on Alert </b></div>
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Because the microphone was briefly obstructed, the court noted that it could “not know how Officer Hernandez went from ‘debating it’ to determining that Bosco’s jump was an alert creating probable cause.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> This, of course, assumes that the Hernandez had not changed his mind about the dog lying down when he was pointing low, though this is unclear. </span>Because the court’s description of the circumstances around declaring an alert might be seen as suggesting that Officer Hernandez had changed his opinion in hindsight, perhaps under pressure to create a reason for a search, the court felt obliged to defend the officer’s behavior:</div>
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None of this is to say, or suggest, that Officer Hernandez’s conduct was dishonest. Rather, the Court agrees with his own assessment—that he was “not on his game” that day—and further believes that he was not on his game when he later wrote his report…. Thus, to an overheated K-9 working in unfamiliar conditions, exhibiting a behavior that he was not trained to exhibit, the Court can add an understandably distracted handler, who, to boot, flip-flopped on how and whether Bosco alerted: In the moment, Officer Hernandez was debating whether Bosco’s jump was an alert. And then later, he identified as an alert a behavior (Bosco’s lying down) that he said in the moment was not an alert.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00232038382864_ID0"></a></div>
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Although the court may have inserted such a comment to shield Officer Hernandez from administrative criticism or sanctions, in the context of a criminal prosecution this also limits the defendant’s ability to call into question the actions of an officer who is providing evidence to be used against him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Clearly Hernandez was addled and feeling pressure to justify a search from the other officer’s present. Nevertheless, he should not have responded to that pressure by calling an alert from behavior that the dog had not been trained to use as an alert, as the court believes he had done. </div>
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<b>Cueing</b></div>
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The court then considers “unintentional cueing.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The Court cannot help but observe that whenever Bosco was focused on the vehicle, he followed Officer Hernandez’s hand almost the entire time. When Officer Hernandez had his hand low, Bosco sniffed low; when he had his hand high, Bosco sniffed high. When he flicked his wrist towards the open window, Bosco jumped on the window opening, or jumped through that opening.</div>
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The expert witnesses for the prosecution and defense disagreed as to whether the handler’s conduct could lead to unintentional cueing, but the court concluded it was a “possibility.” Given the number of passes and the amount of pointing, the dog's thirst and likely desire to get water or be somewhere else, it is perhaps interesting that there was not more alerting behavior. Thus, to say that cueing was only a possibility, and to say that it was unintentional, is to give some slack to Officer Hernandez. </div>
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<b>Combination of Factors Undermine Reliability of Alert</b></div>
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The court did not think any single problem with the circumstances of the alert meant that probable cause was not established, but felt the combination of the problems did:</div>
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Any one of the above factors alone would not be sufficient to render Bosco’s supposed alert unreliable. The mere fact that it was hot out is alone not enough; that Bosco previously only worked in the cool of the night is alone not enough; that the heat admittedly affected Bosco’s performance is alone not enough; that Bosco was often not paying attention is alone not enough; that his supposed alert was not how he was trained to indicate is alone not enough; that Officer Hernandez was off his game and distracted is alone not enough; that he could not readily determine whether Bosco alerted is alone not enough; that he later changed his version of how Bosco alerted is alone not enough; that there was some possibility of unintentional cueing is alone not enough; and that the sniff lasted an abnormally long time is alone not enough. But, <i>taking all of these facts together</i>, and viewing them in the totality of the circumstances, a reasonable person would not think that Bosco’s actions created a reliable alert, such that a search would reveal contraband<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="co_footnoteReference_B00252038382864_ID0"></a>.</div>
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The court thus concluded that there was insufficient evidence that Bosco had alerted, but that even if he had, the alert “was not sufficiently reliable to establish probable cause.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The court ruled that the evidence found as a result of the search had to be suppressed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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It is our interpretation on the facts as presented by the court that there was no alert, and that the official record thus appears to have been falsified.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This alone should lead to a dismissal. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The entire episode suggests a rather insecure handler, with the repeated association of the neutral stimulus with whatever reward system the handler used creating a strong possibility of cueing an alert to get the reward.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For a discussion of relevance of the work of Pavlov and Skinner in this regard, see “Training Fundamentals and the Selection of Dogs and Personnel for Detection Work,” by Minhinnick, Papet, Stephenson, and Stephenson, forthcoming in <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Canine-Olfaction-Science-Law-Environmental/dp/1482260239" target="_blank"><i>Canine Olfaction Science and Law</i></a>.</div>
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We have argued in the <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/walking-search-warrants-canine-forensics-and-police-culture-after-florida-v-harris" target="_blank"><i>Journal of Animal and Natural Resource Law</i></a> that <i>Florida v. Harris</i> comes very close to making dogs “walking search warrants.” It might be argued that this case conflicts with our argument and indicates that courts will continue to be critical of questionable practices during sniffs of vehicles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, the court required a number of problems to exist before it negated the search here: (1) an overheated dog; (2) a variation in standard work temperatures and time of day for the dog and handler; (3) calling an alert from behavior the dog was not trained to use in an alert; (4) an officer “off his game and distracted;” (5) that officer’s alteration of the official record; (6) the possibility of unintentional cueing; and (7) an abnormally long sniff.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To require that all these circumstances be present would limit the value of the decision to this case alone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To require that more than half of them be present would not widen the applicability of the decision very much.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">It is also to be noted that the defendant would not have been successful in defeating probable cause here without both the video and audio of the stop. Since many stops do not have clear audio (not all the audio was clear here), the defense bar should be pushing for universal use of audio equipment along with video equipment. </span></div>
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To say, as the court did, that the possibility of cueing would not alone overcome the value of an alert is particularly disturbing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the possibility is remote, such a perspective may be justified, but if there are clear indications that cueing is likely (regardless of how much intention was involved), then reasonable cause for a search has not been provided. In no event should a behavior that a dog is not trained to give as a final indication be taken as an alert, even if the handler is the one calling it an alert on the scene.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, we believe that the case is such an outlier that it reinforces the defects of <i>Florida v. Harris</i> rather than adding nuance or limitation to that case’s applicability.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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This blog was written by John Ensminger and L.E. Papet. <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt;">© John Ensminger and L.E. Papet 2016.</span></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-35345050305656719442016-03-21T14:57:00.001-04:002016-03-22T06:30:28.918-04:00Child Witnesses on the Stand with Dogs at Their Feet: Judges Deal with Complex Issues While Lawmakers Look for Photo Ops<div class="MsoNormal">
The law on dogs accompanying children and vulnerable witnesses during testimony continues to develop, both in terms of courts accepting the practice and state legislatures enacting statutes to permit it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For four years now I have been maintaining an article on this topic on the website of the Animal Legal & Historical Center of Michigan State University and I have just updated that article for the fourth time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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While the trend towards acceptance of this canine function is a positive one, I continue to be concerned that certain interest groups are having too much influence, particularly with state legislators who are looking for sound bites where they can show their concern for abused children and have themselves photographed with cute puppies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The approaches of some state legislatures, and some courts, are at risk of creating an unnecessary monopoly on who may train these dogs, with consequent limitations on the number of dogs that can be made available and overly rigid formats on how they can be used in the courtroom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I believe that this area of law should, at this time, be allowed to develop organically from the cases presented to the criminal courts—that, in other words, the common law tradition should be allowed to develop free of legislative grandstanding.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b><a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">CASES AND STATUTES ON THE USE OF DOGS BY WITNESSES WHILE TESTIFYING IN CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS: A Periodically Updated Online Article </a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></b></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-83170352515786482052016-03-08T06:28:00.000-05:002016-03-12T14:19:38.971-05:00VA Finalizes Transport Rules for Service Dogs: They Actually Listened to Me (well, sort of)<div class="MsoNormal">
In May 2015, the Department of Veterans Affairs <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-05-27/html/2015-12724.htm" target="_blank">proposed</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to amend its regulations concerning transportation of persons for “examination, treatment, and care”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> under the Veterans Transportation Service (VTS). </span>The proposed regulatory language contained two references to service dogs, the second of which also mentioned guide dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first mention of service dogs, in proposed 38 CFR 70.71(b), specified that the VA could provide transportation services to veterans when authorized for purposes of training a service dog as defined in 38 CFR 17.148. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That proposal has now been <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-03-01/html/2016-04281.htm" target="_blank">finalized</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>without change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The second reference in the 2015 proposal, in 38 CFR 70.73(a), stated that someone requesting transportation services should contact the facility at which the examination, treatment, or care was to be received and provide the facility with the information necessary to arrange transportation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The facility should be given the name of the veteran or service member involved and any special needs that would have to be accommodated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Special needs requiring accommodation could include “a wheelchair, oxygen tank, or a service or guide dog.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That proposal has not been finalized as stated, but rather now reads that a special need about which the facility is to be informed could include “<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-03-01/html/2016-04281.htm" target="_blank">a service animal as defined in 38 CFR1.218(a)(11)(viii)</a>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thus, when transporting a veteran for training of a service dog, the dog must fit within the definition of 38 CFR 17.148, but when transporting a veteran to a facility where the veteran is to receive treatment, the veteran can be accompanied by a service animal as defined under 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11)(viii), a much broader definition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed rule had not included a definitional reference for<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a “service or guide dog” that could accompany a veteran going to a treatment facility and I was concerned about the absence of such a cross-reference.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was too easy to imagine that the reason the rule did not contain such a cross-reference would be interpreted as meaning that the same definition as used earlier in the contiguous set of regulations should apply in the case of a dog accompanying a veteran for treatment. The relevant language of the proposed and the final rules is highlighted in the following table: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Regulation</b></div>
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<b>2015 Proposed Version </b></div>
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<b>2016 Final Version </b></div>
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<b>38 CFR 70.71 Eligibility</b>.</div>
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(b) <i>Enrolled veterans. </i>Regardless of a veteran’s eligibility for beneficiary travel, VA may provide VTS to veterans enrolled in VA’s health care system who need transportation authorized under § 70.72 for:</div>
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(1) A scheduled visit or urgent care;</div>
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(2) Retrieval of, adjustment of, or <b>training</b> concerning medications, prosthetic appliances, <b>or a service dog (as defined in 38 CFR 17.148)</b>;</div>
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(3) An unscheduled visit; or</div>
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(4) To participate and attend other events or functions, as clinically determined by VA, for the purposes of examination, treatment, or care.</div>
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(b) <i>Enrolled veterans. </i>Regardless of a veteran’s eligibility for beneficiary travel, VA may provide VTS to veterans enrolled in VA’s health care system who need transportation authorized under § 70.72 for:</div>
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(1) A scheduled visit or urgent care;</div>
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(2) Retrieval of, adjustment of, or <b>training</b> concerning medications and prosthetic appliances, <b>or a service dog (as defined in 38 CFR 17.148)</b>;</div>
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(3) An unscheduled visit; or</div>
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(4) To participate and attend other events or functions, as clinically determined by VA, for the purposes of examination, treatment, or care.</div>
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<b>38 CFR 70.73 Arranging transportation services.</b></div>
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(a) <i>Requesting VTS. </i>An eligible person may request transportation services by contacting the facility director or designee at the VA facility providing or authorizing the examination, treatment, or care to be delivered. The person must provide the facility director or designee with information necessary to arrange these services, including the name of the person, the basis for eligibility, the name of the veteran or servicemember they are accompanying (if applicable), the time of the appointment (if known), the eligible person’s departure location and destination, any special needs that must be accommodated to allow for transportation (<i>e.g., </i>wheelchair, oxygen tank, <b>service or guide dog</b>), and other relevant information. Transportation services generally will be provided on a first come, first served basis.</div>
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(a) <i>Requesting VTS. </i>An eligible person may request transportation services by contacting the facility director or designee at the VA facility providing or authorizing the examination, treatment, or care to be delivered. The person must provide the facility director or designee with information necessary to arrange these services, including the name of the person, the basis for eligibility, the name of the veteran or servicemember they are accompanying (if applicable), the time of the appointment (if known), the eligible person’s departure location and destination, any special needs that must be accommodated to allow for transportation (<i>e.g. </i>wheelchair, oxygen tank, <b>or service animal as defined in 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11)(viii)</b>), and other relevant information. Transportation services generally will be provided on a first come, first served basis.</div>
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<b>Why Two Regulatory Definitions of Service Animals in the VA Regs? </b></div>
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In order to understand the significance of the change the VA made in finalizing its rule concerning a request for transportation services for treatment, one must first understand why the VA rules contain separate definitions for service dogs, in 38 CFR 17.148, and service animals, in 38 CFR 1.218.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The definition in the historically earlier provision, 38 CFR 17.148 (<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-09-05/html/2012-21784.htm" target="_blank">finalized in 2012</a>) was primarily a funding regulation “to authorize benefits to a veteran with a service dog.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The benefits that might be provided did not include buying the dog, since “a majority of service dogs are acquired by veterans with little or no out of pocket cost.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The benefits did, however, include traveling to obtain the dog, as well as “repairing or replacing harnesses or other hardware, providing annual and emergent veterinary care, providing prescription medications, or paying for other services when prescribed by a veterinarian.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Grooming was not an included benefit, and neither were nonspecialized leashes, collars, or dog licenses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No expenses would be covered for a service dog that has been retired.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs for which a veteran could receive benefits had to mitigate the effects of a visual, hearing, or substantial mobility impairment, and could not be solely for a mental disability, such as PTSD.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dogs also had to be trained by full members (i.e., not provisional members) of the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) or Assistance Dogs International (ADI).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2012/09/va-final-service-dog-rules-still-nix.html" target="_blank">I have railed against the inequities of this rule for years</a>, but there is no point in dredging that up for the present discussion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The second definition, in 38 CFR 1.218, was <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-08-17/html/2015-20182.htm" target="_blank">finalized much more recently in August 2015</a>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in fact after the transport proposal of May 2015, and concerns access to VA property.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That provision largely follows the highly reasoned positions of the Department of Justice, allowing dogs trained for mental disabilities and imposing no organizational training requirement.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rule applies to veterans accessing VA facilities, but also to visitors and employees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have also <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/08/va-issues-final-animal-access-rules-for.html" target="_blank">sung the praises of these well-reasoned rules before</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following table highlights the language in the two definitions that is important for understanding the cross-references in the now-final transport rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>38 CFR 17.148 Service dogs.</b></div>
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<b>38 CFR 1.218 Security and law enforcement at VA facilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
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(a) <i>Definitions.</i> For the purposes of this section:</div>
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<b>Service dogs are guide or service dogs prescribed for a disabled veteran under this section.</b></div>
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(b) <i>Clinical requirements.</i> VA will provide benefits under this section to a veteran with a service dog only if:</div>
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(1) The veteran is diagnosed as having a visual, hearing, or substantial mobility impairment; and</div>
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(2) The VA clinical team that is treating the veteran for such impairment determines based upon medical judgment that it is optimal for the veteran to manage the impairment and live independently through the assistance of a trained service dog. Note: If other means (such as technological devices or rehabilitative therapy) will provide the same level of independence, then VA will not authorize benefits under this section.</div>
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(3) For the purposes of this section, substantial mobility impairment means a spinal cord injury or dysfunction or other chronic impairment that substantially limits mobility. A chronic impairment that substantially limits mobility includes but is not limited to a traumatic brain injury that compromises a veteran's ability to make appropriate decisions based on environmental cues (i.e., traffic lights or dangerous obstacles) or a seizure disorder that causes a veteran to become immobile during and after a seizure event.</div>
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<b>(c) <i>Recognized service dogs.</i> VA will recognize, for the purpose of paying benefits under this section, the following service dogs:</b></div>
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<b>(1) The dog and veteran must have successfully completed a training program offered by an organization accredited by Assistance Dogs International or the International Guide Dog Federation, or both (for dogs that perform both service- and guide-dog assistance). The veteran must provide to VA a certificate showing successful completion issued by the accredited organization that provided such program.</b><br />
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<b>(d) <i>Authorized benefits</i>.</b><br />
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(2) Hardware or repairs or replacements for hardware, that are clinically determined to be required by the dog to perform the tasks necessary to assist the veteran with his or her impairment....<br />
<b>(3) Payment for travel expenses associated with obtaining a dog under paragraph (c)(1) of this section. Travel costs will be provided only to a veteran who has been prescribed a service dog by a VA clinical team under paragraph (b) of this section.... Note: VA will provide payment for travel expenses related to obtaining a replacement service dog, even if the veteran is receiving under this section for the service dog that the veteran needs to replace.</b><br />
(4) The veteran is responsible for procuring and paying for any items or expenses not authorized by this section. This means that VA will not pay for items such as license tags, nonprescription food, grooming, insurance for personal injury, non-sedated dental cleanings, nail trimming, boarding, pet-sitting or dog-walking services, over-the-counter medications,or other goods and services not covered by the policy. The dog is not the property of VA; VA will never assume responsibility for, or take possession of, any service dog.<br />
(5)<i> Dog must maintain ability to function as a service dog</i>....</div>
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(a)(11) <i>Animals.</i> (i) <b>Service animals, as defined in paragraph (a)(11)(viii) of this section, are permitted on VA property when those animals accompany individuals with disabilities and are trained for that purpose</b>. A service animal shall be under the control of the person with the disability or an alternate handler at all times while on VA property. A service animal shall have a harness, leash, or other tether, unless either the handler is unable because of a disability to use a harness, leash, or other tether, or the use of a harness, leash, or other tether would interfere with the service animal's safe, effective performance of work or tasks, in which case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler's control (<i>e.g.,</i> voice control, signals, or other effective means). VA is not responsible for the care or supervision of a service animal. Service animal presence on VA property is subject to the same terms, conditions, and regulations as generally govern admission of the public to the property.</div>
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<b>(viii) A service animal means any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual's disability. The crime deterrent effects of an animal's presence and the provision of emotional support, well-being, comfort, or companionship do not constitute work or tasks for the purposes of this definition. Service dogs in training are not considered service animals. This definition applies regardless of whether VA is providing benefits to support a service dog under 38 CFR 17.148.</b></div>
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After the funding rule was implemented in 2012, some VA facilities used it as a limiting provision as to what kinds of service animals could enter VA facilities. Even in 2012 the VA had indicated that it was going to issue additional guidance on service animal access to facilities, but in the absence of more formal guidance, it is not surprising that this confusion continued for three years until the access guidance was promulgated in August 2015. Unfortunately, I have been advised since posting this blog that some facilities are still adhering to the funding rule as a means of defining access to a facility. Despite the scandal regarding delays in providing appointments to veterans in Phoenix, a change in leadership, and many high-profile announcements about improvements, the incompetence of the VA continues to amaze and appall. <br />
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Although not discussed in the preamble to the final rules, it is important to note that the provision regarding transportation for dog training in 38 CFR Part 70 would only apply to a fully trained service animal, regardless of which cross-reference applied.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 38 CFR 17.148(c)(1), the “dog and veteran must have successfully completed a training program….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11)(viii), a service animal is “any dog that is individually trained….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, transporting a dog for training under 38 CFR 70.71(b)(2) must be interpreted as not taking a dog somewhere to qualify it as a service dog or animal, but rather as taking it to some location where the dog's skills will be sharpened and maintained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Traveling to obtain a dog under 38 CFR 17.148 generally would involve a period of acclimation between the veteran with the disability and the dog, which is often the final stage of the dog's precertification training but, as will be explained below, this is not a stage covered by 38 CFR 70.71(b)(2), but rather under 38 17.148(d)(3). </span></div>
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<b>Significance of Two Definitions to the Transport Rules</b></div>
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As I already stated, the initial transport proposal in May 2015 only referred to one definition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, there was only one definition of “service dog” in the VA rules at that point, the funding definition, because the facility access definition was then only <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2014/11/va-to-allow-more-service-dogs-in.html" target="_blank">a proposal</a>, a possibility.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, there was every indication that the proposal would be largely finalized as written—which happened in August 2015—and I foresaw <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/06/new-definition-of-service-dog-may-get.html" target="_blank">a problem about which I blogged</a> and concerning which I <a href="http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=VA-2015-VHA-0010-0003" target="_blank">submitted a comment to the VA</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was, in fact, the <i>only</i> comment submitted by anyone on the VA’s transport proposal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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I noted that as written the proposed transport rule, referring to only one definition of service dog in the provision regarding transport for training purposes, would likely be the definition relied upon by facilities and transport services in determining what kinds of service dogs could accompany veterans to treatment facilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Given that the facility access proposal would allow a much broader group of service animals to come into VA facilities with veterans using them, it would be very odd indeed if transport to a facility was denied to the same veterans and their animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here is how the VA acknowledged and responded to my comment:</div>
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As noted by the commenter, the lack of consistency in referencing § 17.148 in both §§ 70.71(b)(2) and 70.73(a) creates confusion as to whether a different meaning of the term “service dog” should be applied when determining VTS eligibility under § 70.71, versus when determining what is required to arrange or request VTS transport under § 70.73. As also noted by the commenter, a proposed revision to another VA regulation would define the term “service animal” in 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11) more broadly than the term ‘‘service dog’’ is defined in § 17.148. <i>See </i>79 FR 69379. Since VA received this comment, § 1.218(a)(11) has been revised to include this broader definition of “service animal.” <i>See </i>80 FR 49157 [August 17, 2015]. Ultimately, the commenter asserted that § 70.71(b)(2) should be revised to refer to the broader definition of “service animal” in § 1.218(a)(11).</div>
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We agree with the commenter that if a person is eligible for VTS and traveling with a service animal, then the broader definition of “service animal” in § 1.218(a)(11) should be used in VTS regulations. As noted by the commenter, if the broader definition of “service animal” in § 1.218(a)(11) was not used in VTS regulations, then VA may create conflicting situations where a person would be permitted to bring a “service animal” as defined in § 1.218(a)(11) into a VA facility, but would not be able to use VTS to be transported with such an animal to or from a VA facility. We therefore revise § 70.73(a) to add a reference to § 1.218(a)(11). This revision to § 70.73(a) addresses the commenter’s concern that VA’s definition of “service animal” in § 1.218(a)(11) should be applied consistently in the context of service animal access, whether the issue is a veteran getting into a VA facility with their service animal, or a veteran getting to the entrance of that VA facility with their service animal via VA transportation.</div>
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On my next suggestion, however, I was not successful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/06/new-definition-of-service-dog-may-get.html" target="_blank">I had argued</a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>that the provision regarding transport for training a service dog should also be changed so that such transportation could be provided to a veteran to obtain training for a service animal that met the broader definition of 38 CFR 1.218, rather than the narrower definition of 38 CFR 17.148.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To this argument, the VA responded:</div>
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We do not, however, adopt the commenter’s suggestion to revise § 70.71(b)(2) to reference “service animal” as defined in § 1.218(a)(11). As stated earlier in this final rule, § 70.71(b)(2) as proposed would create VTS eligibility for, among other things, transportation related to training a “service dog” that is recognized under § 17.148. If we revised § 70.71(b)(2) to replace the reference to “service dog” in § 17.148 with a reference to “service animal” in § 1.218(a)(11), we would instead create VTS eligibility for transportation related to training a “service animal” that is recognized under § 1.218(a)(11). However, this would conflict with VA’s service dog benefits standards in § 17.148, because § 17.148(c) has specific training requirements that are not present in § 1.218(a)(11). The commenter’s suggested revision to § 70.71(b)(2) would create scenarios where VA could provide VTS transport to support the non-specific training of a “service animal” that is recognized under § 1.218(a)(11), although VA could not recognize that training under § 17.148(c) for the purposes of providing service dog benefits. Such a practice could be interpreted as VA supporting nonspecific training that is not recognized under § 17.148(c), and would erode VA’s training requirements in § 17.148(c). To avoid this conflict between VA standards related to service animal access in § 1.218(a)(11) and VA standards related to service dog benefits in § 17.148, we do not make the revision to § 70.71(b)(2) as suggested by the commenter.</div>
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It is true that there are specific training requirements in 38 CFR 17.148, mostly because the organization providing the training has to be a full member of IGDF or ADI, but there are also training requirements under 38 CFR 1.218.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The effect of the rule is that the VA will not help veterans who have dogs for mental disabilities, such as PTSD, get to and from trainers, nor will the VA help a veteran get to and from a trainer who is not a full member of IGDF or ADI, even if the trainer is highly experienced and has been recognized by other organizations and even medical facilities as turning out high quality service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is, as <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/08/va-issues-final-animal-access-rules-for.html" target="_blank">I have argued before</a>, tantamount to the VA investing two organizations with a monopoly on service dog training and designating those organizations as gatekeepers for VA funds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is to be noted, however, that the VA would not even help a veteran get to and from a full member of IGDF or ADI if the dog was being used solely for a mental disability (probably impossible with IGDF, which concerns guide dogs, but possible with some ADI members).</div>
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<b>Transport to Training Facilities Not Generally Transport to VA Facilities</b></div>
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The VA clarifies transport to and from a training facility is not transport to and from a VA facility because the VA does not provide service dog training, stating:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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We additionally clarify that VTS travel to receive training with approved service dogs under § 17.148 would only be approved travel under § 70.72(d). The types of authorized transportation under § 70.72(a)–(c) must be to or from VA or VA-authorized facilities. However, transportation to participate in ‘‘retrieval of, adjustment of, or training concerning . . . a service dog under § 17.148’’ (as stated in § 70.71(b)(2)) would not be to or from a VA or VA-authorized facility because <i>VA does not conduct, facilitate, or pay for service dog training</i>. While VA does recognize specific training under § 17.148(c) for the purpose of paying service dog benefits, the training facilities themselves are not considered VA or VA-authorized facilities. Section 70.72(d) authorizes VTS transportation between locations other than VA or VA-authorized facilities, and such transportation may only be authorized when a VA clinician has determined that such transportation would be needed to promote, preserve, or restore the health of the individual. </div>
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The statement that the “VA does not conduct, facilitate or pay for service dog training” is not quite correct.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yount et al. (2012) describe a service dog training program that was established at “a large Veterans Administration residential treatment center for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)” (Yount, R.A., Olmert, M.D., and Lee, M.R. (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Service Dog Training Program for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress in Service Members.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjP37zA2qfLAhUEpB4KHQU9BM4QFggsMAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.amedd.army.mil%2Ffiledownloadpublic.aspx%3Fdocid%3D73e8d2aa-1a2a-467d-b6e3-e73652da8622&usg=AFQjCNGTD3eJ3nZeShH_C2_34Vnbn26PyQ&sig2=0COcQxEfCCIexqVegSQo9Q" target="_blank"><i>The United StatesArmy Medical Department Journal</i>, April-June 2012</a>). In a legislative hearing of the Subcommittee on Health of the House Committee on Veterans’ Affairs on <a href="https://veterans.house.gov/submission-for-the-record/warrior-canine-connection-0" target="_blank">July 15,2015</a>, Rick Yount, Executive Director of the Warrior Canine Connection, gave a list of facilities at which service dog training programs have been established where Wounded Warriors can train service dogs, one of which was the Palo Alto VA Medical Center.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Presumably the authors of the preamble to the current release would argue this situation is atypical, or accidental, and is an exception to the rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><b>VTS Travel Generally for Short Distances </b></span></div>
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The preamble to the current rule continues:</div>
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We also note that in most cases we anticipate that individuals would use the beneficiary travel benefit instead of VTS to obtain a service dog that is recognized in § 17.148, because VTS travel resources cannot be relied upon to travel greater distances that typically necessitate air travel, for instance, and service dog training organizations recognized under § 17.148 are not located in every State.</div>
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Under 38 CFR 17.148(d), listing authorized benefits for a service dog under the funding regulation, the VA provides for payments “for travel expenses associated with obtaining a dog” under 38 CFR 148(c)(1), or for obtaining a “replacement service dog.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As indicated, the veteran must have been prescribed a service dog by a “VA clinical team” to obtain such a travel benefit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The preamble is thus clarifying that the travel benefit to obtain a dog under 17.148(d)(3) may have to cover long-distance travel, such as airfare, which is not what the VTS program was generally designed to do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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I had acknowledged in my comment letter that the reference to 38 CFR 17.148 in the travel-for-training regulation had a certain logic if this travel were being considered an aspect of funding a service dog, but the argument presented in the current preamble is somewhat different.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, the VA is saying that travel to obtain a dog is not part of VTS at all, but rather part of 38 CFR 17.148. Nevertheless, the VA believes that the travel provided in 38 CFR 70.71(b)(2) should conform to the restrictions of 38 CFR 17.148 because otherwise the VA would have an inconsistent policy on payments for purposes of obtaining a qualified service dog and for purposes of continuing its training, and if the policy on the second were different from the first purpose, that first purpose would be undermined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the benefit of providing transport to train a dog is not directly part of funding the service dog's acquisition, but is closer to that provision than it is to taking a veteran to and from a facility for the veteran’s own medical needs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Put another way, 38 CFR 70.71(b)(2) is more about the dog, while 38 CFR 70.73 is more about the veteran.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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This explains why the VA rejected “the commenter’s suggestion to revise §
70.71(b)(2) to reference ‘service animal’ as defined in §
1.218(a)(11).”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The commenter is disappointed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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So, I guess I was one for two.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<b>Periodic Training Programs with the Original Training Organization</b><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">There is one situation that the rules do not clearly address. Some service dog training organizations ask those they have paired dogs with to return periodically, often annually, for a refresher course and to evaluate whether the user has kept using the dog as was intended by its specialized training. Although not specifically discussed by the rules, I believe that this would more easily be considered part of obtaining a dog under 38 CFR 17.148, rather than part of training under the short-term travel coverage conceived of in 38 CFR 70.71(b)(2). Such refresher courses may be a condition of obtaining the dog, particularly from organizations that keep ownership under a formal agreement with the user, who is licensed to use the dog but does not own it. When the issue presents itself, hopefully the VA will define its policy on this question. </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion </b></div>
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To sum up, a veteran can get a service dog under the broad definition of the Department of Justice into a van to go to a VA facility for an appointment, but if he or she wants to travel to obtain a service dog, or take it to a location for training, there will be no van or other transportation provided unless the dog fits within the narrower definition provided under the VA’s service dog funding regulation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The VA’s reluctance to provide funding for service dogs for PTSD and other mental disabilities is at least in part economic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-06-16/html/2011-14933.htm" target="_blank">proposing the service dog funding rule in 2011</a>, the VA indicated that it expected to fund only about 100 dogs each year, most of which would be guide dogs for veterans blinded in combat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the VA had to meet the demand for service dogs for veterans with PTSD and other mental disabilities, thousands and thousands of dogs could qualify and the agency’s budget would need a significant boost, something Congress has not been in the mood for for much of President Obama's administration despite all the rhetoric about improving the VA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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It must be hoped that more programs, such as those established by Rick Yount, will sooner rather than later change attitudes in the upper echelons of the VA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thanks to Leigh Anne Novak for comments. Thanks to Bart Sherwood of Tadsaw for raising the question of how training organization requirements on annual evaluations should be categorized under the two travel provisions. </span></div>
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John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-89248863471591334572016-03-03T10:25:00.005-05:002023-03-11T11:40:16.253-05:00Dying for Better Warning Labels: The Short and Lonely Life of the Laboratory Research Dog<div class="MsoNormal">
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In Kazuo Ishiguro’s 2005 novel, <i>Never Let Me Go</i> (made into a movie in 2010), children at an isolated English boarding school do not have parents but rather "guardians," people who continually encourage them to remain healthy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Three students learn that this emphasis on health is not for their own good, but because they have a special function.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are clones created for only one purpose, to produce healthy organs for people who need to replace parts of their bodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the organs of these clones have been harvested, they will die, a step referred to as "completion." The school and the students come from a novelist’s imagination, but for laboratory animals such a world is not fictional.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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As Lynda Birke wrote in a 2012 article in <i>Body & Society</i>, the “edifice of what we call scientific, medical, knowledge is built upon animal corpses.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs have been specifically bred for laboratory experimentation as commercial products for over a hundred years (Asdal 2008), but this segment of the canine breeding industry, unlike all other dog breeders, strives to remain as inconspicuous to the general public as possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The scientists who perform research on animals also avoid describing how those animals were used in their experiments, perhaps 45% of the time do not indicate how the animals were killed, and frequently do not even acknowledge that the animals in fact died (Smith et al. 2005). One seminal analysis of animal research papers found that of 98 papers describing “procedures which must have involved the death of the animals involved,” only 44 of the papers mentioned that the animals in the experiments had died (Smith et al. 1997). In 2019 there were about 65,000 dogs in U.S. laboratories and about 18,000 dogs in EU laboratories. <br /></div>
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<b>Killing Snails and Slugs </b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAXs9wZ9SLzxXYniYnpR5Sha7Df66dXXnvOwkZr7l9VzWztpRts59LOq35XnxeCbXFHRdvi0RXZaN9XpXjPQumxvKWL33-2AvVmUx3JI7vbv-_K1sMi0v2823XDGK8vUWAtsdc66qoGm8/s1600/Peta+laboratory+research+dog+2.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAXs9wZ9SLzxXYniYnpR5Sha7Df66dXXnvOwkZr7l9VzWztpRts59LOq35XnxeCbXFHRdvi0RXZaN9XpXjPQumxvKWL33-2AvVmUx3JI7vbv-_K1sMi0v2823XDGK8vUWAtsdc66qoGm8/s400/Peta+laboratory+research+dog+2.jpg" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Laboratory Research Dog (courtesy Peta)</td></tr>
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When I go through the <i>Federal Register</i> every morning, I look for certain topics, including terrorism financing and anti-money laundering regulation, as well as references to dogs, wolves, and other terms relevant to interests of mine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many, perhaps most, of the federal government releases that refer to dogs are of only passing interest, including items about drugs that are being approved for veterinary use with dogs, food additives that are being found safe for use in dog food, or sometimes not safe, and occasionally references to pesticides and other chemicals that may put dogs at risk if ingested.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such references are usually brief, often contained only in tables that summarize research findings, and rarely draw my attention.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These findings sometimes mean that dogs were used in experiments, that is, that dogs were laboratory animals being given food or undergoing procedures to see what the effects of administering a chemical might be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Somewhere in the back of my mind, when I encounter such references, is an image of a dog in a cage in a sterile room, looking at other dogs in cages, none ever having any name beyond<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>numbers on their cages, perhaps allowed a brief period of exercise each day in a small room with a concrete floor and windows too high to look out, perhaps not even allowed to play with other dogs if companionship might violate somebody’s requirements for the research being conducted on them, often maimed or killed in the interest of science and human welfare, autopsied with organs weighed and then biopsied to establish variance from a control population (which may also be killed, but here it is sometimes possible to use legacy statistics from other laboratories), and finally disposed of as laboratory waste rather than given any dignity in a burial or individual cremation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Recently I saw a document that gave more information than is usually available, more than I really wanted to know because it forced me think about what the animals’ lives were like, something I try not to think about, until I can’t avoid it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i>Federal Register</i> for March 4, 2015, contained a <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-03-04/pdf/2015-04277.pdf" target="_blank">release of the Environmental Protection Agency</a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>that provided tolerances for residues of metaldehyde in parts per million (ppm) on certain commodities including ginseng (0.25 ppm), pea and bean (succulent shelled, subgroup 6B, 0.20 ppm), vegetable, foliage of legume (except soybean, 1.5 ppm), clover (forage and hay, each 0.60 ppm).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Metaldehyde is a molluscicide that is used by growers and gardeners to kill snails and slugs and the EPA was doing some fine tuning to its regulation (40 CFR 180.522) on how much can be present in certain food items for human and animal consumption, such as for cattle that are slaughtered for meat markets. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6eAuOKYqNa78FOv_xwckko6s-cF_ntZr3mkkHxHCiRWLK-7UNigdtmmoBSPuCqg6EQUXjHPwEeV6J-opstrGkxylEY6YTJatDurrG5WQ7jVMZ-zwmemuOOJO-nXHQtgaVNq_3OK0Tc6A/s1600/Metaldehyde+2D+Image+%2528EPA%2529.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6eAuOKYqNa78FOv_xwckko6s-cF_ntZr3mkkHxHCiRWLK-7UNigdtmmoBSPuCqg6EQUXjHPwEeV6J-opstrGkxylEY6YTJatDurrG5WQ7jVMZ-zwmemuOOJO-nXHQtgaVNq_3OK0Tc6A/s200/Metaldehyde+2D+Image+%2528EPA%2529.jpg" width="197" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Metaldehyde (National Center for Biotechnology Information)</td></tr>
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This <i>Federal Register</i> release was almost certainly of no interest to anyone outside of a relatively small set of farming and agricultural production facilities, and of only slightly more interest to manufacturers of <a href="http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=CHEMICALSEARCH:3:0::NO:1,3,31,7,12,25:P3_XCHEMICAL_ID:2823" target="_blank">metaldehyde</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">. </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Known</span> more technically as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaldehyde" target="_blank">2,4,6,8-tetramethyl-1,3,5,7-tetroxocane</a>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>metaldehyde is sold, according to the <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/61021" target="_blank">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>under at least 65 trade names, including Antimilice, Ariotox, Blitzem (in Australia), Cekumeta, Deadline, Defender (in Australia), Halizan, Limatox, Limeol, Meta, Metason, Mifaslug, Namekil, Slug Fest Colloidel 25, and Slugit. A UC Davis <a href="http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7427.html" target="_blank">website</a> concerning pests in gardens and landscapes states that this is the most common snail and slug bait product available, but adds the following warning:</div>
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[M]etaldehyde baits are particularly poisonous to dogs and cats, and the pelleted form is especially attractive to dogs. Don’t use metaldehyde snail baits where children and pets could encounter them. Metaldehyde baits containing 4% active ingredient are more effective than those containing only 2%; however, they also are more toxic to dogs and wildlife. Avoid getting metaldehyde bait on plants, especially vegetables.</div>
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The entry in the <i>Federal Register</i> came about because a research group at Rutgers University, the IR-4 Project, had <a href="http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=EPA-HQ-OPP-2007-0626-0001" target="_blank">recommended in 2013</a> that tolerance levels for metaldehyde on certain crops be established, and recommended changes to tolerance levels previously set by the EPA for certain other crops.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is a case where a university research program was filling in certain gaps in industrial research that would not be cost-effective for chemical manufacturers to conduct.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The crops with <a href="http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=EPA-HQ-OPP-2005-0231-0031" target="_blank">new tolerance levels</a> included ginseng, certain peas, beans, and tomatoes, forage clover and hay </div>
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The EPA’s release effectively finalized some of the proposals previously made by IR-4. </div>
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<b>Toxicological Profile</b></div>
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The March 4 <i>Federal Register</i> release contained the following sentences in the description of the toxicological profile of metaldehyde:</div>
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The principal toxic effects for metaldehyde are clinical signs of neurotoxicity, as well as changes in the liver and testes/prostate following repeated oral dosing. The dog is the most sensitive species for neurotoxic effects. Nervous system effects observed in the subchronic and chronic oral toxicity studies include: Ataxia and tremors; twitching; salivation; emesis; rapid respiration in dogs and maternal rats; and limb paralysis, spinal cord necrosis, and hemorrhage in maternal rats. Liver effects include increased liver weight, increased incidence of liver lesions (hepatocellular necrosis, hepatocellular hypertrophy and inflammation), and an increased incidence of hepatocellular adenomas in female rats and in both sexes of mice. In dogs, atrophy of the testes and prostate was observed following subchronic and chronic exposure.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjFYu3sqv8yh2zgyDAri9Apz3clyFyPi_tcsNmHIT4abnq974yZQXYlx8RTiXrGgBjCTeejPCqOCpY5R4iUs_uAzq_iy8pwswMfdBRopp1W1NabPLsg1zsM6BVBdR5huZhbgBtqB45Fo/s1600/EPA+2013+toxicological+table.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="355" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTjFYu3sqv8yh2zgyDAri9Apz3clyFyPi_tcsNmHIT4abnq974yZQXYlx8RTiXrGgBjCTeejPCqOCpY5R4iUs_uAzq_iy8pwswMfdBRopp1W1NabPLsg1zsM6BVBdR5huZhbgBtqB45Fo/s640/EPA+2013+toxicological+table.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Summary of Toxicological Doses and Endpoints for Metaldehyde Use in Human Health Risk Assessment (EPA 2013)</td></tr>
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Things like liver weights and prostate size could not have been precisely determined without killing the dogs and extracting their organs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This got me wondering where the information on metaldehyde’s effects came from, but the EPA gave no citation to support its short description.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 2013, however, in an earlier release setting limits on residues for metaldehyde on various commodities (<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-11-27/html/2013-28370.htm" target="_blank">78 Fed. Reg. 70864, November 27, 2013<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></a>), the EPA again did not name the original studies on toxicity of metaldehyde, but did include a table of “toxicological doses and endpoints for metaldehyde for use in human health risk assessment.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Note that although the table is intended to provide a human health risk assessment, the recommendations for limits are based, as indicated in the fourth column, on a “chronic dog oral toxicity study.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some acronyms need defining:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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NOAEL = no-observed-adverse-effect-level</div>
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LOAEL = lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level</div>
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LOC = level of concern</div>
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MOE = margin of exposure</div>
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UF = uncertainty factor</div>
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UF<sub>A</sub> = uncertainty factor extrapolated from the study on dogs to humans because humans, of course, are not available to be put in cages and administered poisons to undertake such tests.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>UF<sub>H</sub> = potential variation among humans, i.e., once the dosage limit is extrapolated from dogs to humans, how much variation in that estimate there might be in the human population.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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RID = reference dogs</div>
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The 2013 release added some detail to the information about the dog studies on which the various limits for metaldehyde were determined, stating that clinical “signs (ataxia, tremors, twitching, salivation) in the chronic dog study, which occurred within the first week of explosure and persisted through week 19 (other signs included lateral position, reduced mobility, convulsions, and vocalization in one female, and agitation in another).” Thus, some of the dogs had been given doses of metaldehyde over at least 19 weeks, almost five months, and one female dog protested her unfair lot by barking while another may have begun to lose her mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Metaldehyde Dog Experiments </b></div>
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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency publishes a manual, <i>Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings</i> (<a href="http://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/recognition-and-management-pesticide-poisonings" target="_blank">Roberts and Reigart 2013</a>), which gives sources that were not provided by the agency in its <i>Federal Register</i> releases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prior to 1986 there had only been two metaldehyde pharmacology studies, both of which used mice, that had found (1) a significant decrease in the brain concentration of γ-aminobutyric acid, (2) and increase in monoamine oxidase activity, and (3) a significant decrease in brain levals of noradrenaline, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The LD50 for rats (the dosage level that would kill 50% of a population of test animals) was determined to be between 420 and 690 mg/kg (milligrams per kilogram of body weight).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Then in 1986, Booze and Oehme used dogs instead of rats. They chose 15 “healthy mixed-breed male dogs” weighing between 8 and 19 kilograms (18 and 42 pounds), from six months to two years old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using young dogs is preferred so that measures such as organ weight and damage can largely exclude effects of aging. The animals came from Kansas State University’s Animal Resources Facility (renamed the <a href="http://www.k-state.edu/cmg/" target="_blank">Comparative Medicine Group</a> in 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs were “housed individually in large metabolism cages, two to a room.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Metabolism, or metabolic cages, have themselves been the subject of research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sabchuk et al. (2012) found that “dogs kept in metabolic cages eliminate drier feces and spend more time inactive than those kept in kennels.” The dogs in this study also slept more in cages than kennels.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The dogs were given dry dog food and free access to water.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eight dogs were orally dosed with 600 mg of metaldehyde (or 600 mg of acetaldehyde) per kg of body weight. An arterial catheter was surgically placed in the left carotid artery under anesthesia, “and brought to the surface on the left side of the neck, where it was kept in place by a Velcro-fastened enclosure.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs were dosed at 8 a.m., with blood samples obtained after 15 minutes, 45 minutes, and then hourly for 12 hours after the dose was administered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Urine samples were collected in a stainless steel pan under the cage until the drugs were no longer detected. </div>
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Tremors were graded into four categories: none, slight, moderate, severe; respiration as normal, panting, or labored; salivation as normal, increased, or thick; coordination as normal or abnormal; hyperesthesia (increased sensitivity to stimulation) as absent or present; vomiting as absent or present; and diarrhea as absent or present.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One dog had tonic-clinic convulsions, profuse and thick salivation, hyperesthesia, and ataxia, and died 4.5 hours after dosing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The remaining dogs appeared normal a day after dosing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The clinical signs occurred in the following numbers of the eight dogs dosed with metaldehyde:</div>
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Slight tremors </div>
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8</div>
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Moderate tremors </div>
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3</div>
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Severe tremors </div>
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2</div>
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Ataxia</div>
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4</div>
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Hyperesthesia</div>
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4</div>
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Increased salivation</div>
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2</div>
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Death </div>
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The authors concluded that the LD50 of metaldehyde for dogs is greater than 600 milligrams per kilogram of the dog’s body weight, refining a previous estimate of the same authors (1985), based on poisoning cases, of between 100 and 1,000 mg/kg of body weight. </div>
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More recent dog research on metaldehyde was conducted in England. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A <a href="http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/Resources/CRD/ACP/153_metaldehyde.pdf" target="_blank">1996 British government report <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></a>by the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Pesticides Safety Directorate, describes an unpublished German study (Neumann 1980) using smaller doses of metaldehyde (20, 60, or 90 mg/kg body weight/day) where there were “no clinical or ophthalmological signs of toxicity and no deaths” over six months of dosing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The research also found that “clinical chemistry, haematology and urinalysis were unaffected by treatment.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All of which makes the study sound relatively harmless to the dogs except for the observation that “post-mortem organ weights were not affected by the treatment.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The animals were killed at the end of the study to verify internal effects resulting from the administration of the pesticide.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The NOEL level (no observed effect level) for metaldehyde, from this study was determined to be 20 mg/kg body weight/ day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is on the basis of this finding that some of the minimum levels of metaldehyde in agricultural products were established.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Laboratory Animal Welfare Act</b></div>
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The fate of laboratory dogs is all quite legal, of course, though Congress has taken occasional interest in laboratory animals, often because of stories disturbing to the public about escaped pets that ended up as subjects in research facilities (National Research Council 2009). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This generally happens in states that permit pounds to sell pets, usually after a short period, to research facilities as an alternative to euthanizing them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The connections between pounds and research facilities could itself be an extensive study.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQf29xEkBfFLgwuasOFDIWBCYiBGE8ExTUDquEy15tPwl_0QXSk_zeHsgsvE_j_jIfxtMs-82VKos2VkT84Lt1TbD8xOJsN4D1RM3JJGTVkK2xu7ucmO5M2KlPc5znpLYUUnvujLy3C9w/s1600/APHIS+research+animals+2001-2007.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQf29xEkBfFLgwuasOFDIWBCYiBGE8ExTUDquEy15tPwl_0QXSk_zeHsgsvE_j_jIfxtMs-82VKos2VkT84Lt1TbD8xOJsN4D1RM3JJGTVkK2xu7ucmO5M2KlPc5znpLYUUnvujLy3C9w/s640/APHIS+research+animals+2001-2007.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Number of Animals Covered by AWA Used in Research 2001-2007 (NRC 2009)</td></tr>
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The number of animals over a seven-year period from 2001 to 2007 that were used as research subjects is indicated in a table provided in the NRC’s 2009 report, taking statistics from an earlier USDA report.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fortunately, sporadic statistics for later years indicate that the number of dogs used in experiments continues to decline.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Section 13 of the Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (<a href="https://awic.nal.usda.gov/legislative-history-animal-welfare-act/intro" target="_blank">PL 89-544, August 24, 1966</a>) provides that the Secretary of Agriculture is to “establish and promulgate standards to govern the humane handling, care, treatment, and transportation of animals by dealers and <i>research facilities</i>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Standards are to include requirements on “housing, feeding, watering, sanitation, ventilation, shelter from extremes of weather and temperature, separation by species, and adequate veterinary care.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Under 9 CFR 3.7, which concerns the humane handling, care, treatment, and transportation of dogs and cats by “dealers, exhibitors, and <i>research facilities</i>,” specifies that if “a dog is housed, held, or maintained at a facility without sensory contact with another dog, it must be provided with positive physical contact with humans at least daily.” Thus, the research facility has a choice between giving dogs contact with each other or contact with people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The National Research Council of the National Academies publishes a <i>Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals</i> (8<sup>th</sup> ed. 2011), which accepts that dogs, cats, rabbits, and other animals benefit from “positive human interaction.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs are singled out as regards human attention: “Dogs can be given additional opportunities for activity by being walked on a leash, having access to a run, or being moved into areas for social contact, play, or exploration.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeZQrXPExNq1NHOja9Cc7xG80IrgZP-U63kPIAKyx1k1AVQMC-zbAHG_yqYjFCVKNLgaH8CPnp1bGXWnJjWThRcLx5DN7NKpe5NM5AVmn7uYFce3TNumtPnhp92nGr06GJNyC99DuDEYI/s1600/NRC+cage+height+table.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="228" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeZQrXPExNq1NHOja9Cc7xG80IrgZP-U63kPIAKyx1k1AVQMC-zbAHG_yqYjFCVKNLgaH8CPnp1bGXWnJjWThRcLx5DN7NKpe5NM5AVmn7uYFce3TNumtPnhp92nGr06GJNyC99DuDEYI/s400/NRC+cage+height+table.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cage Height Table (NRC 2011)</td></tr>
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Dogs have an advantage over most experimental species, according to the NRC’s <i>Guide</i>, in that they can be “trained, through use of positive reinforcement techniques, to cooperate with research procedures or remain immobile for brief periods.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See also Meunier 2006.) Dogs, because they are “noisy animals,” should be housed away from where research is being done.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When possible, they should be given “manipulable toys.” However, their noisiness, according to the <i>Guide</i>, makes them useful in research where pain thresholds are being measured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See, e.g., Devitt et al. 2005; Holton et al. 1998.)</div>
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Dogs have the disadvantage of needing more space in cages that cats and rabbits, so the fact that dogs are used less extensively than some other species is not wholly due to the reluctance of researchers to use animals that their children might think of as pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cage size also determines why certain breeds, such as beagles, are more common in research settings (<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2LtqAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=play" target="_blank">Andersen 1970<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Various organization, including Peta and the Humane Society, have launched <a href="http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/" target="_blank">campaigns</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to improve the lot of laboratory animals, in some cases attempting to force the USDA’s Animal & Plant Inspection Service to investigate complaints about how some laboratories care for animals on which they are experimenting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of course, this goes only to the more superficial trappings of what happens to these animals, insuring that cages are cleaned, vermin are removed from the environment, wounds are treated, etc.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fact that there is often a horror to the overall fate of these animals is not something that the present law or rules will do anything to alleviate. </div>
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<b>Sociological Research on Researchers Who Use Dogs in Lethal Experiments</b></div>
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Lynda Birke of the University of Chester, already quoted, must be read if one wants to delve into the nether world of the use of animals in biomedical research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a 2012 paper she gets as close to the core of anyone I have read as to why we find the use of animals in experiments to be acceptable:</div>
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We inherit a long history of cultural beliefs that animals, unlike humans, do not have souls/consciousness, and that other species cannot perceive pain or perceive it less than we do. Thus we can justify producing sick animals as models, and we can accept probing into their bodies in the search for understanding what bodies do. Indeed, it is precisely because of that history of human exceptionalism that probing into animals’ living bodies in pursuit of knowledge becomes acceptable. Animal bodies, whether alive or dead, thus stand in for human ones, representing our diseases – so much so, that lab animals can be said to represent our salvation from the terror of our own mortality. </div>
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Arnold Arluke of Northeastern University, who has also studied how researchers relate to laboratory animals and is a sometime collaborator with Birke, notes (Arluke 1988) that researchers often prefer to avoid eye contact with the dogs on which they experiment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A laboratory that transported conscious dogs kept them in a private hallway outside the laboratory until moments before an experiment was to get under way. Another laboratory, which had no such hallway, would turn the dogs' cages to face a wall and sometimes drape surgical sheets over the cages as well.</div>
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<b><span style="color: red;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg02tvyTRM6PEi2Phd2VBOpsJEWpKYBsJcMffEHls-hoZESfcwh_TsgHf-SsopHoNJm64rjB1o8HJ6gGoi6bG7PIQn4Z6zb47y4GISKvErc5iY5FEbogU_4Jcg6vOw3kR_u67WB647b_DU/s1600/Peta+laboratory+research+dog.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg02tvyTRM6PEi2Phd2VBOpsJEWpKYBsJcMffEHls-hoZESfcwh_TsgHf-SsopHoNJm64rjB1o8HJ6gGoi6bG7PIQn4Z6zb47y4GISKvErc5iY5FEbogU_4Jcg6vOw3kR_u67WB647b_DU/s400/Peta+laboratory+research+dog.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="color: black;">Laboratory Research Beagle (courtesy Peta)</span></span></td></tr>
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</span></b>Arluke reports that laboratory technicians often prefer purpose-bred dogs—dogs that have never known anything but cages in breeding facilities and experimental environments—because these dogs are less likely to behave like pets, to extend a paw for contact, to whine, to sit on command, in other words to behave like an animal that should be cared for.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shapiro (1989) concludes that researchers attempt to view an animal they are dealing with not as an individual, not even as a member of a species, but rather as an organic process, a biological organism, a physiological system, or, as Birke (2012) says, “a specific local accomplishment of the organization of laboratories and their associated infrastructure.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She elaborates:</div>
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Once lab animals are thus perceived, it becomes more difficult to see them in the same way as ‘naturalistic’ animals elsewhere. They are different: they would not exist were it not for the demands of experimental science. As such, we can learn to justify intrusion into their bodies for a putative greater good, and we can learn (if somewhat ambivalently) to see their bodies as sums of parts.</div>
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As someone who once did research to determine if intertidal crabs could orient toward the nearest shore by the position of the sun or, at night, the moon, I am aware of how easily the objective of the research, and its importance to the advancement of science (or at least to one’s career), can become an excuse for ignoring the effects of the experiments on the animal subjects that are producing the raw data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet it sometimes moves to the macabre, and must make us question our humanity, as with a technician described by Arluke (1988) who amused his colleagues by addressing a dog he was about to anesthetize by saying to it, “Okay Fido, let’s boogie!” </div>
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Birke (2012) also notes that because of an animal’s species-specific biology, its ability to stand in for humans and provide relevant conclusions may often be questionable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, of course, opens up yet another issue that could fill volumes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><b>Rehoming Laboratory Dogs</b> <br /></span></div>
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<br /></div><div class="MsoNormal">Efforts are increasing to rehome laboratory dogs‒i.e., to put them up for adoption‒<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]-->if they are lucky enough not to have been used in an experiment with a terminal protocol. This trend raises the obvious question of how well dogs that have lived a portion of their lives in laboratory cages will adapt to a home environment, a question that has become a research topic for some behaviorists and psychologists (Doring et al. 2017a, 2017b; Skidmore and Roe 2020; Lopresti-Goodman and Bensmiller 2022). These studies generally concluded that laboratory dogs could be given to private owners successfully. To call this "rehoming" rather misses the fact that most of the dogs had, prior to being taken from research facilities, no home in the conventional sense for most pets. </div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal">The studies generally demonstrated that former laboratory dogs have the resiliency necessary to fit into the lives of the families that adopted them, and were on some measures perhaps better pets than most dogs without similar experiences in that they were less likely to chase cats and birds or roll in their feces. They tended to be more fearful of strangers, however, and to react more to sudden and loud noises. Despite being more fearful of strangers, they were less likely to be aggressive towards strangers. Beagles that are aggressive towards strangers, however, may be poor candidates for rehoming and may remain in shelters indefinitely, creating an overall bias in the samples of rehomed dogs. <br /></div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal">Beagles adopted from laboratories were generally more anxious and fearful, and showed more separation anxiety, than beagles that had not had the same experience, and these effects could last for up to four years and, in some cases, even longer. While experimenters generally knew little about the nature of the experiments that were performed on rehomed dogs, there were indications that some dogs could be appropriately diagnosed as having canine post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), a phenomenon that has been reported in military working dogs. Dogs used in disease research and toxicity testing often undergo painful and distressing procedures that could put them at risk for CPTSD. </div><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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If it could be shown that some research directed towards human health requires validation through experiments on medium-sized mammals (National Research Council 2009 accepts that this is the case), and admitting that some core element of our humanity requires that we not use members of our own species as research subjects, then insisting that dogs not be used while pigs or rabbits can be used seems arbitrary, as if we must heed the advice of the Chick-fil-A cows and <a href="http://www.chick-fil-a.com/Cows/Campaign-History" target="_blank">EAT MOR CHIKIN</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Birke et al. (2006) cite one scientist who did not have a problem experimenting on certain species, but could not see working with dogs, cats, or monkeys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Yet perhaps there should be a social contract in the human-canine relationship, as if the fact their varied and complex assistance to us throughout the long history of their domestication creates an obligation on us to excuse them from the more horrific burdens of domesticated status.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Even if this is accepted, however, it </span>does not prove that we move onto a moral high ground if we insist that dogs not be used in painful and fatal experiments yet accept that pigs can be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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Scientists should indicate in published research when and how animals are used, and when they are killed for experimental purposes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Federal and state agencies relying on such research for setting standards should at least refer to the research, in the <i>Federal Register</i> or elsewhere, when indicating the justification for a standard being set. Steps should be taken to lift the veil of secrecy that has been built to protect the industry that produces animals for research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Efforts by various groups, such as the Humane Society, to find out about conditions of laboratory animals often require filing of Freedom of Information Act requests with the USDA and other inspection services.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such reports should be publicly available, without advocates having to figure out where information and statistics may have been hidden by government bureaucracies to avoid the possibility of public outrage. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Finally, although efforts should continue to be made to regulate the transfer of animals from pounds and general dealer markets into research markets, the use of purpose-bred dogs by laboratories should not create a façade that allows us to ignore the horror faced by such dogs just because they were never pets or around other dogs that were to become pets. Purpose-bred dogs are as horrifying as purpose-bred people. Like the children in Ishiguro’s novel, such dogs have only one purpose, and often one fate, and many, in the few short years they are allowed to live, will never be able to stand tall enough to look out to any other world. We cannot absolve ourselves, even if we can justify our research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<br />
<i><b>Additional Notes</b></i>: For a discussion of "compassion fatigue" among individuals who care for laboratory animals, see an article in <i>Science </i>written by David Grimm, <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/suffering-silence-caring-research-animals-can-take-severe-mental-toll" target="_blank">"Suffering in Silence: Caring for research animals can take a severe mental toll. Is anyone listening?"</a> The EPA continues to adjust its
metaldehyde regulations, though it is not clear that any additional dog
experiments have been conducted in doing so. <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-10-18/html/2016-25166.htm" target="_blank">81 Fed. Reg. 71633 (October 18, 2016)</a>. </div>
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This blog was written by John Ensminger and L.E. Papet.</div>
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<b><i>Sources</i></b>:</div>
<ol>
<li>Andersen, A.C. (1970).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>The Beagle as an Experimental Dog</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ames: Iowa State University Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Arluke, A.B. (1988). Sacrificial Symbolism in Animal Experimentation: Object or Pet? <i>Anthrozoos, 2(2)</i>, 98-116 (discussing how researchers avoid the term “kill” when referring to what happens to laboratory animals, preferring “sacrifice,” “sack,” “terminate,” or just putting an X on a form.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Sacrifice” is no longer used in scientific contexts because of a desire to avoid any religious connotations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Asdal, K. (2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subjected to Parliament: The Laboratory Experimental Medicine and the Animal Body. <i>Social Studies of Science, 38</i>, 899-917.</li>
<li>Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES) (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://echa.europa.eu/en/web/guest/search?p_p_id=echasearch_WAR_echaportlet&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_count=1&_echasearch_WAR_echaportlet_doSearch=true&_echasearch_WAR_echaportlet_forceAdvanced=true" target="_blank">CLH Report for Metaldehyde</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>.</li>
<li>Barber, A.L.A., Randi, D., Muller, C.A., and Huber, L. (2016). The Processing of Human Emotional Faces by Pet and Lab Dogs: Evidence for Lateralization and Experience Effects. <i>PLoS/One</i>, DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0152393 (April 13, 2016) (finding that lab dogs pay less attention to the mouths of humans, perhaps because they are not anticipating verbal commands as pet dogs do; pet dogs also look at faces more quickly perhaps because the lab dogs here "live in packs and are therefore surrounded by other dogs but not humans, [so] human faces are not salient enough to elicit a fast response.").</li>
<li>Bates, N. S., Sutton, N. M., & Campbell, A. (2012). Suspected Metaldehyde Slug Bait Poisoning in Dogs: a Retrospective Analysis of Cases Reported to the Veterinary Poisons Information Service. <i>Veterinary Record: Journal of the British Veterinary Association</i>, <i>171</i>(13), 324 (“A retrospective analysis of telephone enquiries to the Veterinary Poisons Information Service found 772 cases with follow-up concerning suspected metaldehyde slug bait ingestion in dogs between 1985 and 2010. Half the enquiries occurred in the summer months. The amount and strength of the slug bait ingested was rarely known. In 56, cases the quantity consumed was estimated and was on average 229.6 grams of bait. Clinical signs developed in 77.3 per cent of dogs; common signs were convulsions, hypersalivation, twitching, hyperaesthesia, tremor, vomiting, hyperthermia and ataxia. Only 4.6 per cent of dogs developed hepatic changes, and only one developed renal impairment. The average time to onset of signs was 2.9 hours post-ingestion, with 50.3 per cent of dogs developing effects within one hour. Increased muscle activity (twitching, convulsions) lasted on average 15.2 hours. Recovery time was reported in 61 cases and occurred on average at 39.3 hours. Common treatments were gut decontamination, anticonvulsants, anaesthetics and intravenous fluids. Of the dogs that were treated with sedatives, 45.8 per cent required more than one sedative or anaesthetic agent. Methocarbamol was rarely used, probably due to unavailability. The outcome was reported in 762 dogs; 21.7 per cent remained asymptomatic, 61.7 per cent recovered and 16 per cent of dogs died or were euthanased. Where known (only six cases), the fatal dose of bait ranged from 4.2 to 26.7 g/kg (average 11.8 g/kg).”).</li>
<li>Birke, L. (2012). Animal Bodies in the Production of Scientific Knowledge: Modelling Medicine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Body & Society, 18(3-4)</i>, 156-178.</li>
<li>Birke, L., Arluke, A. and Michael, M. (2006). <i>The Sacrifice: How Scientific Experiments Transform Animals and People</i>. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Booze, T.F., and Oehme, F.W. (1985).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Metaldehyde Toxicity: A Review. <i>Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 27</i>, 11-19.</li>
<li>Booze, T.F., and Oehme, F.W. (1986).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An Investigation of Metaldehyde and Acetaldehyde Toxicities in Dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Fundamental and Applied Toxicology, 6</i>, 440-446.</li>
<li>Buhl, K.J., Berman, F.W., Stone, D.L. (2013). Reports of Metaldehyde and Iron Phsophate Exposures in Animals and Suspected Toxicosis in Dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 242(9)</i>, 1244-1248.</li>
<li>Caloni, F., Cortinovis, C., Rivolta, M., and Davanzo, F. (2016).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Suspected Poisoning of Domestic Animals by Pesticides.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Science of the Total Environment, 539</i>, 331-336.</li>
<li>Devitt, C.M., Cox, R.E., and Hailey, J.J. (2005). Duration, Complications, Stress, and Pain of Open Ovariohysterectomy Versus a Simple Method of Laparoscopic-Assisted Ovariohysterectomy in Dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 227, 921-927.</li><li>Doring, D., Bauer, A. Kuchenhoff, H., and Erhard, M.H. (2017a), Behavior of Laboratory Dogs before and after Rehoming in Private Homes. ALTEX, 34(1), 133-47.</li><li>Doring, D., Nick, O., and Bauer, A. (2017b). How do Rehomed Laboratory Beagles Behave in Everyday Situations? Results from an Observational Test and a Survey of New Owners. PLoS One, 12(7), e0181303. <br /></li>
<li>DOI [Department of the Interior]. 2007.</li>
<li>Environmental Protection Agency, Metaldehyde; Pesticide Tolerances [EPA-HQ=OPP=2014-0110; FRL-9921-85] Final Rule, <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-03-04/pdf/2015-04277.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 11583 </a>(March 4, 2015).</li>
<li><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Environmental Protection Agency. Metaldehyde; Pesticide Tolerances. <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-11-27/html/2013-28370.htm" target="_blank">78 Fed. Reg. 70864</a> (November 27, 2013). </span></li>
<li>Holton, L.L., Scott, E.M., Nolan, A.M., Reid, J., Welshe, E., and Flaherty, D. (1998).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Comparison of Three methods Used for Assessment of Pain in Dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 212(1)</i>, 61-66.</li>
<li>Humane Society (November 11, 2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pets_experiments/qa/questions_answers.html?credit=web_id97313863" target="_blank">Fact Sheet: Pets Used in Experiments </a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>(describing the Class B dealer system and efforts to stop laboratory reliance on such dealers).</li>
<li><a href="http://ir4.rutgers.edu/Other/AnnualReports/2013%20Annual%20Report.pdf" target="_blank"><i>IR-4 Project 2013 Annual Report</i></a>. (“The IR-4 Project (Interregional Research Project Number-4) was established by the Directors of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations (SAES) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1963 as a cooperative research program with the goal to support growers of fruits, vegetables, nuts and other small acreage specialty food crops by assisting with the registration of pesticides on these “minor crops”. The IR-4 Project was needed because companies that develop and register pesticides concentrate their efforts on large acreage crops that provide adequate return on investment. These companies do not consider specialty crops and other minor uses of pesticides a priority business objective. Potential sales in these small markets do not justify the investment in development of the required data for registration. As a result, there are often many pest management voids in specialty crops and minor use markets. IR-4 fills the void by developing the magnitude of the residue and/or product performance data needed by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the crop protection industry and/or other regulatory authorities to allow registrations on the specialty crops.”).</li>
<li>Ishiguro, K. (2006). <i>Never Let Me Go</i>. New York: Vintage.</li>
<li>Leuschner, J. (2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Four-Week Dose-Range-Finding Study for a 52-Week Chroinic Toxicity Study of Metaldehyde by Oral Administration via the Diet to Beagle Dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>LPT Report No. 14543/01: Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology KG, Hamburg, Germany.</li><li>Lopresti-Goodman, S.M., and Bensmiller, N. (2022). Former Laboratory Dogs' Psychological and Behavioural Characteristics. Veterinarni Medicina, 67, doi.org/10.17221/139/2021-VETMED. <br /></li>
<li>Meunier, L.D. (2006).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16963813" target="_blank"> </a></span><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16963813" target="_blank">Selection, Acclimation, Training and Preparation of Dogs for the Research Setting</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>ILAR </i>[Institute for Laboratory Animal Research] <i>Journal 47(4)</i>,326.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>National Research Council (2011). <i>Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals</i>. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>National Research Council (2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Scientific and Human Issues in the Use of Random Source Dogs and Cats in Research</i>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Neumann, W. (1980). 26-weeks-toxicity of metaldehyde 99%--called “Metaldehyde”—in Beagle Dogs after Oral Administration (with Supplement).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>LPT Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology KG, Hamburg, German; LPT Lonza Report No. 1379 Part 1, Document Nos. 533-001 and 533-001.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Roberts, J.R., and Reigart, J.R. (2013).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/recognition-and-management-pesticide-poisonings" target="_blank"><i>Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings</i> </a>(6<sup>th</sup> ed.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Sabchuk, T.T., Felix, A.P., Comin, J.G., Guimaraes, A., de Oliveira, S.G.,and Maiorka, A. (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Digestibility and Behavior of Dogs Housed in Kennels or Metabolic Cages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 41(1)</i>, 118-122.</li>
<li>Shapiro, K.J. (1989).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Death of the Animal: Ontological Vulnerability.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Between the Species, 5</i>, 183-193.</li><li><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Skidmore, T., and Roe, E. (2020). A Semi-Structured Questionnaire Survey of Laboratory Animal Rehoming across 41 UK Animal Research Facilities. PLoS One 15(6), e0234922. <br /></span></li>
<li>Smith, J.A., Birke, L., and Sadler, D. (1997). Reporting Animal Use in Scientific Papers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Laboratory Animals, 31(4)</i>, 312-317.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Smith, A., Munthe, A.C., and Strengehagen, K. (2005).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reporting the Results of Animal Experiments: An Analysis of 160 Articles Published in 2004.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Berlin: Fifth World Congress on Alternatives & Animal Use in the Life Sciences.</li>
<li>Steenbergen, V.M. (2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.aspcapro.org/sites/pro/files/ze-vettech__0404.pdf" target="_blank">Taking the Bait: Metaldehyde Toxicosis</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Veterinary Technician</i><i>.</i></li>
</ol>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-52532652096229256032016-02-20T08:29:00.001-05:002016-02-21T07:59:19.689-05:00GAO Chides TSA for Failure to Place Bomb Dogs at Airport CheckpointsA report of the Government Accountability Office published February 17, 2016, summarizes recommendations the GAO has made since 2003 concerning the Transportation Security Administration's security-related technology acquisitions (<a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-176" target="_blank">GAO-16-276</a>). The GAO report contains the following chart, which indicates that TSA has failed to implement a total of seven GAO recommendations, two from 2004, one from 2012, one from 2013, and three from 2014. <br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyZ5k6Ul4qqmUwxk4JHASM2JMxFvH10eVp_Z63KfKDify3RiKhyHF0PWMU_fI-j8tzViuwpZ7TjVhf2ev7qXBDZj9TrTWMlOlLmJwhQ-Dt5QWinDRNAQ26jHAW1CK0QE7jq54fADQ9QFQ/s1600/GAO-16-176+TSA+v+GAO+2003-2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyZ5k6Ul4qqmUwxk4JHASM2JMxFvH10eVp_Z63KfKDify3RiKhyHF0PWMU_fI-j8tzViuwpZ7TjVhf2ev7qXBDZj9TrTWMlOlLmJwhQ-Dt5QWinDRNAQ26jHAW1CK0QE7jq54fADQ9QFQ/s640/GAO-16-176+TSA+v+GAO+2003-2015.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">GAO Recommendations on TSA Acquisitions 2003-2015</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Most of the unimplemented recommendations have nothing to do with dogs, but two that were made in 2013 concerned explosive detection dogs for passenger screening. One recommendation was that TSA should determine the effectiveness of dogs in passenger screening. The GAO had stated in two prior reports (<a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-13-239" target="_blank">GAO-13-239</a> and <a href="http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-695T" target="_blank">GAO-14-695T</a>) that passenger screening canines sometimes misidentified which individuals were actually carrying explosives at airports. This was discussed in several prior blogs (<a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2013/02/tsas-airport-canine-programs-need.html" target="_blank">February 18, 2013</a>; <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/01/is-expedited-screening-getting-too-much.html" target="_blank">January 22, 2015</a>) and the GAO even released a video clip (scroll down in <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/01/is-expedited-screening-getting-too-much.html" target="_blank">blog of January 22, 2015</a>) of one of its tests showing a dog passing by a decoy carrying an explosive odor and alerting to an innocent passenger walking through a terminal. Despite this obvious problem, the GAO now says that TSA has appropriately determined the effectiveness of TSA-deployed canines. It would be useful for the public's peace of mind to know what changed in the last few years to lead the GAO to place its stamp of approval on TSA canines, but we may have to wait a long time for any significant information about this.<br />
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The other recommendation that was made in 2013, but which has not been fully implemented according to the GAO, concerns the location of passenger-screening canines throughout airports. The 2013 report had much to say about this, but the 2016 report only indicates that passenger-screening dogs are not being used at checkpoints. Again, the current report provides little detail on the present level of this deficiency. If TSA is resisting the idea of deploying dogs at checkpoints, this may have more to do with concerns that clogged checkpoints would become even more clogged with dogs present. A <a href="https://www.rt.com/usa/333044-atlanta-airport-tsa-staff/" target="_blank">highly publicized letter</a> from Miguel Southwell, General Manager of the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport to Peter Neffenger, TSA Administrator, states that if TSA cannot speed up checkpoint screening, the Atlanta airport may <a href="http://www.wsbtv.com/news/news/local/atlanta-airport-gm-tsa-get-your-act-together-or-yo/nqSTT/" target="_blank">replace TSA screeners with private contractors</a>. How this might affect canine operations throughout the airport is not clear, but TSA may not want to signal at this time that it will add more steps to the checkpoint process. Rather than re-analyzing the issues regarding TSA canine deployments with such little information to go on, I have chosen to add a brief discussion to the Update Notes in the <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2013/02/tsas-airport-canine-programs-need.html" target="_blank">prior blog posted February 18, 2013</a>. John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-84788640921056139762016-01-28T11:28:00.000-05:002016-12-18T16:44:28.271-05:00Labor Department Proposes Service-Animal Rules for Job-Training Agencies and Programs<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Additional Notes</b></i>: In December, the Department of Labor finalized the regulations discussed in this blog (<a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-12-02/html/2016-27737.htm" target="_blank">81 Fed. Reg. 87130, December 2, 2016</a>). Several commenters to the proposal issued in January had recommended that miniature horses should be included in the service-animal definition, or given the kind of provisional status they have received from the Department of Justice. In the preamble to the final rules as just issued, the Department states:<br />
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An advocacy organization recommended that the definition of “service animal” be expanded to include emotional support animals to be consistent with language in the Pennsylvania Human Relations Act and the Federal Fair Housing Act. Another advocacy organization suggested that CRC eliminate or explain the differences between CRC’s and DOJ’s language regarding emotional support and the exclusion of miniature horses as service animals. Similarly, a state-based organization serving individuals with developmental disabilities recommended that the definition of “service animal” be revised to include miniature horses. The commenter noted that, even though current ADA requirements recognize dogs only as service animals, it also permits the use of a miniature horse as a service animal in certain circumstances.</div>
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The references in this paragraph are to the State of Michigan's Developmental Disabilities Council and Psychiatric Service Dog Partners. To such suggestions, the Department now says:<br />
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In the interest of uniformity, our definition of a service animal under section 38.4(fff) is limited to dogs, consistent with the Department of Justice's 2010 ADA Title regulations. While another section of the DOJ Title II regulations sets out standards for the reasonable modificaiton of policies, and procedures to permit miniature horses to be utilized in certain circumstances and under specific criteria, this is different from including miniature horses in the definition of "service animal."</div>
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Uniformity, however, would be to include such a separate provision. The Department also rejected the idea that emotional support animals should be included in the service-animal definition. This, however, could not be said to be a surprise because the Department had demonstrated no interest in broadening the DOJ definition. <br />
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As I noted in the original blog below, the most important question was whether these rules might become a model for more significant enforcement areas delegated to the Department of Labor. Though that is still possible, the demonstrated aversion of the incoming administration to regulations in general, as well as the visible contempt of the president-elect towards those with disabilities, make it unlikely that these provisions will have broader significance for some years.<br />
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<i>The original blog follows</i>. <br />
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The Department of Labor has shown little inclination to issue regulations regarding service animals. In the entire of Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations there is only one reference to a service animal and one to a guide dog, and both are in explanatory texts rather than in the regulations themselves. Thus, in describing mitigating measures that should <i>not</i> be taken into account in determining whether an impairment substantially limits a major life activity, the explanatory language to 29 CFR 1630.2(j)(1)(vi), gives a service animal as an example of a mitigating measure not to be taken into account.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, blindness substantially limits a major life activity even if a guide dog allows the individual with a disability to function more close to normal, and deafness severely limits a major life activity even if a hearing dog allows the dog’s owner to respond to sounds in his or her environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eyeglasses and contact lenses are an exception to this logic, so that if a person with vision impairment can function normally with glasses, he or she may not be categorized as having an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The reference to a guide dog in Title 29 comes only a few pages away and concerns 29 CFR 1630.2(o), a section that gives a number of definitions, including one for “reasonable accommodation.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The explanatory language states that it “would be a reasonable accommodation for an employer to permit an individual who is blind to use a guide dog at work, even though the employer would not be required to provide a guide dog for the employee.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Thus, whether an employee should be able to have a service animal in a workplace is a matter that requires a <a href="https://askjan.org/media/servanim.html" target="_blank">reasonable accommodation analysis</a>. </span></div>
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<b>Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act</b></div>
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This dearth of regulatory attention to service animals by the Department of Labor has changed dramatically with the issuance of proposed regulations that would implement the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (PL 113-128, abbreviated "WIOA"), signed into law by President Obama on July 22, 2014.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This Act was designed to provide federal funds for workers to learn new skills to enable them to compete for jobs in growth sectors of the 21<sup>st</sup> century economy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Act prohibits agencies receiving federal funds for this purpose from discriminating on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, <i>disability</i>, or political affiliation or belief. Section 3(25) of the Act defines “an individual with a disability” as “an individual with a disability as defined in section 3 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. 12102).”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed rules, published in the Federal Register on January 26, are open for comment until March 28, 2016.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Department of Labor, Implementation of the Nondiscrimination and Equal Opportunity Provisions of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act, RIN 1291-AA36.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-01-26/html/2016-01213.htm" target="_blank">81 Fed. Reg. 4494, January 26, 2016</a>)</div>
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The anti-discrimination provisions apply to recipients of federal funds provided under the Act.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A recipient is defined under proposed 29 CFR 38.4(zz) as an entity that receives assistance either directly or indirectly, such as a state or any of the following entities:</div>
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(1) State-level agencies that administer, or are financed in whole or in part with, WIOA Title I funds;</div>
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(2) State Workforce Agencies;</div>
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(3) State and local Workforce Investment Boards;</div>
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(4) LWIA [Local Workplace Investment Area] grant recipients;</div>
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(5) One-Stop operators;</div>
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(6) Service providers, including eligible training providers;</div>
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(7) On-the-Job Training (OJT) employers;</div>
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(8) Job Corps contractors and center operators;</div>
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(9) Job Corps national training contractors;</div>
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(10) Outreach and admissions agencies, including Job Corps contractors that perform these functions;</div>
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(11) Placement agencies, including Job Corps contractors that perform these functions;</div>
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(12) Other National Program recipients.</div>
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Thus, programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance under the Act cannot discriminate against participants with disabilities who use service animals. As to why DOL decided to deal with service animals in these proposed regulations, DOL says that the “Department’s discussions with recipients’ EO [Equal Opportunity] Officers demonstrate that there has been some confusion on the part of recipients as to what constitutes a service animal and what constitutes a pet.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Service Animals under New DOL Regulations </b></div>
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The regulations now proposed for 29 CFR Part 38 would replace final <a href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-07-23/html/2015-17637.htm" target="_blank">regulations published in July 2015</a> that were in question and answer form but which brought complaints from recipient agencies that found the format confusing and difficult to navigate. Those regulations did not mention service animals.<br />
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Given that many covered entities are state-level agencies, it is not surprising that DOL has now chosen to rely on the DOJ service-animal regulations that apply to state and local governments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are differences between the service-animal rules of the two Departments, however, the major ones being (1) the inclusion of a provision on the presence of service animals in food preparation areas in the DOL rules, and (2) the absence of any mention by DOL of miniature horses as a category that, while not formally labeled service animals by DOJ, are at least provisionally covered by similar access provisions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those differences are highlighted in the table below, with the proposed rules of the Department of Labor on the left and the final rules of the Department of Justice on the right.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: .5in; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
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<b>Department of Labor</b></div>
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<b>Department of Justice </b></div>
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<b>29 CFR 38.4 Definitions.</b></div>
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(fff) <i>Service animal </i>means any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual’s disability. Examples of work or tasks include, but are not limited to, assisting individuals who are blind or have low vision with navigation and other tasks, alerting individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing to the presence of people or sounds, providing non-violent protection or rescue work, pulling a wheelchair, assisting an individual during a seizure, alerting individuals to the presence of allergens, retrieving items such as medicine or the telephone, providing physical support and assistance with balance and stability to individuals with mobility disabilities, and helping persons with psychiatric and neurological disabilities by preventing or interrupting impulsive or destructive behaviors. The crime deterrent effects of an animal’s presence and the provision of emotional support, well-being, comfort, or companionship, <b>without more</b>, do not constitute work or tasks for the purposes of this definition.</div>
</td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.5pt;" valign="top" width="282"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b>28 CFR 35.104 Definitions. </b></div>
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<i>Service animal </i>means any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual's disability. Examples of work or tasks include, but are not limited to, assisting individuals who are blind or have low vision with navigation and other tasks, alerting individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing to the presence of people or sounds, providing non-violent protection or rescue work, pulling a wheelchair, assisting an individual during a seizure, alerting individuals to the presence of allergens, retrieving items such as medicine or the telephone, providing physical support and assistance with balance and stability to individuals with mobility disabilities, and helping persons with psychiatric and neurological disabilities by preventing or interrupting impulsive or destructive behaviors. The crime deterrent effects of an animal's presence and the provision of emotional support, well-being, comfort, or companionship do not constitute work or tasks for the purposes of this definition.</div>
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<b>29 CFR 38.16 Service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
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(a) <i>General. </i>Generally, a recipient shall modify its policies, practices, or procedures to permit the use of a service animal by an individual with a disability.</div>
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(b) <i>Exceptions. </i>A recipient may ask an individual with a disability to remove a service animal from the premises if—</div>
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(1) The animal is out of control and the animal’s handler does not take effective action to control it; or</div>
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(2) The animal is not housebroken.</div>
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(c) <i>If an animal is properly excluded. </i>If a recipient properly excludes a service animal under paragraph (b) of this section, the recipient must give the individual with a disability the opportunity to participate in the WIOA Title I-financially assisted service, program, or activity without having the service animal on the premises.</div>
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(d) <i>Animal under handler’s control. </i>A service animal must be under the control of its handler. A service animal must have a harness, leash, or other tether, unless either the handler is unable because of a disability to use a harness, leash, or other tether, or the use of a harness, leash, or other tether would interfere with the service animal’s safe, effective performance of work or tasks, in which case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler’s control (<i>e.g., </i>voice control, signals, or other effective means).</div>
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(e) <i>Care or supervision. </i>A recipient is not responsible for the care or supervision of a service animal.</div>
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(f) <i>Inquiries. </i>A recipient must not ask about the nature or extent of a person’s disability, but may make two inquiries to determine whether an animal qualifies as a service animal. A recipient may ask if the animal is required because of a disability and what work or task the animal has been trained to perform. A recipient must not require documentation, such as proof that the animal has been certified, trained, or licensed as a service animal. Generally, a recipient may not make these inquiries about a service animal when it is readily apparent that an animal is trained to do work or perform tasks for an individual with a disability (<i>e.g., </i>the dog is observed guiding an individual who is blind or has low vision, pulling a person’s wheelchair, or providing assistance with stability or balance to an individual with an observable mobility disability).</div>
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(g) <i>Access to areas of a recipient’s facilities. </i>(1) <i>In general. </i>Individuals with disabilities must be permitted to be accompanied by their service animals in all areas of a recipient’s facilities where members of the public, participants in services, programs or activities, beneficiaries, registrants, applicants, eligible applicants/registrants, applicants for employment and employees, or invitees, as relevant, are allowed to go.</div>
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<b>(2) <i>Use of service animals in food preparation areas. </i>An employee, applicant or beneficiary with a disability who needs to use a service animal in a food preparation area must be allowed to do so unless the employer recipient, after an individualized assessment, can demonstrate, that the presence of the service animal presents a direct threat to health or safety that cannot be eliminated or reduced by a reasonable accommodation to the employee, applicant or beneficiary.</b></div>
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(h) <i>Surcharges. </i>A recipient must not ask or require an individual with a disability to pay a surcharge because of his or her service animal, even if people accompanied by pets are required to pay fees, or to comply with other requirements generally not applicable to people without pets. If a recipient normally charges individuals for the damage they cause, an individual with a disability may be charged for damage caused by his or her service animal.</div>
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<b>28 CFR 35.136 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Modifications in policies, practices or procedures.</b></div>
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(a) <i>General.</i> Generally, a public entity shall modify its policies, practices, or procedures to permit the use of a service animal by an individual with a disability.</div>
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(b) <i>Exceptions.</i> A public entity may ask an individual with a disability to remove a service animal from the premises if—</div>
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(1) The animal is out of control and the animal's handler does not take effective action to control it; or</div>
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(2) The animal is not housebroken.</div>
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(c) <i>If an animal is properly excluded.</i> If a public entity properly excludes a service animal under §35.136(b), it shall give the individual with a disability the opportunity to participate in the service, program, or activity without having the service animal on the premises.</div>
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(d) <i>Animal under handler's control.</i> A service animal shall be under the control of its handler. A service animal shall have a harness, leash, or other tether, unless either the handler is unable because of a disability to use a harness, leash, or other tether, or the use of a harness, leash, or other tether would interfere with the service animal's safe, effective performance of work or tasks, in which case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler's control (<i>e.g.,</i> voice control, signals, or other effective means).</div>
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(e) <i>Care or supervision.</i> A public entity is not responsible for the care or supervision of a service animal.</div>
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(f) <i>Inquiries.</i> A public entity shall not ask about the nature or extent of a person's disability, but may make two inquiries to determine whether an animal qualifies as a service animal. A public entity may ask if the animal is required because of a disability and what work or task the animal has been trained to perform. A public entity shall not require documentation, such as proof that the animal has been certified, trained, or licensed as a service animal. Generally, a public entity may not make these inquiries about a service animal when it is readily apparent that an animal is trained to do work or perform tasks for an individual with a disability (<i>e.g.,</i> the dog is observed guiding an individual who is blind or has low vision, pulling a person's wheelchair, or providing assistance with stability or balance to an individual with an observable mobility disability).</div>
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(g) <i>Access to areas of a public entity.</i> Individuals with disabilities shall be permitted to be accompanied by their service animals in all areas of a public entity's facilities where members of the public, participants in services, programs or activities, or invitees, as relevant, are allowed to go.</div>
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(h) <i>Surcharges.</i> A public entity shall not ask or require an individual with a disability to pay a surcharge, even if people accompanied by pets are required to pay fees, or to comply with other requirements generally not applicable to people without pets. If a public entity normally charges individuals for the damage they cause, an individual with a disability may be charged for damage caused by his or her service animal.</div>
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<b>(i) <i>Miniature horses.</i> (1) <i>Reasonable modifications.</i> A public entity shall make reasonable modifications in policies, practices, or procedures to permit the use of a miniature horse by an individual with a disability if the miniature horse has been individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of the individual with a disability.</b></div>
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<b>(2) <i>Assessment factors.</i> In determining whether reasonable modifications in policies, practices, or procedures can be made to allow a miniature horse into a specific facility, a public entity shall consider—</b></div>
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<b>(i) The type, size, and weight of the miniature horse and whether the facility can accommodate these features;</b></div>
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<b>(ii) Whether the handler has sufficient control of the miniature horse;</b></div>
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<b>(iii) Whether the miniature horse is housebroken; and</b></div>
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<b>(iv) Whether the miniature horse's presence in a specific facility compromises legitimate safety requirements that are necessary for safe operation.</b></div>
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<b>(3) <i>Other requirements.</i> Paragraphs 35.136(c) through (h) of this section, which apply to service animals, shall also apply to miniature horses.</b></div>
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As to why DOL added a provision regarding service animals in food preparation areas, it is perhaps worth noting that the EEOC has a webpage, “<a href="http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/restaurant_guide.html" target="_blank">How to Comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act: A Guide for Restaurants and Other Food Service Employees</a>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This webpage does not define “service animal” but does refer to an ADA website for further information on service animals, as well as cross-referencing to service-animal provisions in the Food Code, a document discussed here in a <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/12/fda-food-production-rules-grant-access.html" target="_blank">prior blog</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Placing the burden of establishing a reason to exclude a service animal from a food preparation area on the recipient of funds, rather than on the individual using the animal, is appropriate and, if DOL is considering expanding its service-animal provisions to other areas where it has regulatory authority, it is to be hoped that this approach will remain consistent. <br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The lack of any mention of miniature horses, either in the text of the regulations or in the preamble, is more puzzling. Whether this is due to reasons similar to those given by the Veterans Administration in declining to allow miniature horses in VA facilities, as <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/08/va-issues-final-animal-access-rules-for.html" target="_blank">discussed here when those rules were finalized last August</a>, or is rather explained by a total lack of agency experience with miniature horses, is unclear. It is to be hoped that those advocating the use of miniature horses as service animals will sooner rather than later find an effective lobbying voice and begin commenting on regulatory ignorance of their existence. </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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It might be hoped that DOL’s willingness to follow DOJ’s lead on service animal issues will soon extend beyond just the recipients of federal funds under a single program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two footnotes in the regulatory release give pause to such speculation, however.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both footnotes state that the “EEOC has not addressed whether or not this definition [i.e., the definition of “service animal” in proposed 29 CFR 38.4 in the table above] would apply to employers and employment agencies covered under Title I of the ADA or Section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While these footnotes acknowledge a deficit in regulatory coverage, they may not imply that this deficit will be addressed any time soon but rather may be intended to emphasize that no extension of the current proposal regarding service animals to other areas under DOL's purview is to be anticipated. </div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-63581906235662663412015-12-09T05:37:00.000-05:002016-01-03T11:35:52.386-05:00FDA Food Production Rules Grant Access to Guard and Pest-Detection Dogs, but Why Are Guide Dogs the Only Service Animals Allowed into Some Buildings and Facilities?<div class="MsoNormal">
The Food and Drug Administration has thousands of pages of regulations regarding the growing and manufacturing of food for human consumption, among which are rules about animal waste, which is a concern because of the possibility that, if found in human food, such waste can cause disease (<i>Salmonella</i>, <i>E. Coli</i>, <i>Cryptosporidium</i>, etc.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two new sets of rules issued in September, concerning food manufacturing procedures, and November, concerning fruits and vegetables, add nearly five hundred pages to the total, and raise certain access issues as to specially trained canines that will be discussed here<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food, <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-09-17/pdf/2015-21920.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 55908, September 17, 2015</a>; Standards for the Growing Harvesting, Packing, and Holding of Produce for Human Consumption, RIN 0910-AG35, <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-11-27/pdf/2015-28159.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 74354, November 27, 2015</a>).</div>
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<b>General<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>FDA Policies on Reducing Animal Contamination Risks</b></div>
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In order to reduce the threat of contamination as much as possible, animals are generally prohibited to the extent practical from being in environments where food is grown, harvested, stored, processed, packaged, and otherwise altered before reaching retail outlets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not all animals can be excluded, however.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Grazing animals may be on farms where plants are being grown for human food.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Livestock herding and guarding dogs may have to protect these grazing animals from predators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Guard dogs may be needed to protect buildings where food is processed and stored.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pest-detection dogs may be needed to identify and eliminate various pests and infestations both in fields and pastures and inside of structures. Farm pets may run through fields and barns.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Individuals with disabilities may work in food-producing environments and may require the assistance of service dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The FDA regulations in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations recognize all these types of animals, <i>except service dogs</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, the regulations recognize guide dogs only, most probably a legacy of that period where the only dogs with access greater than pets under disability law were guide dogs for the blind and visually impaired.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The earliest references to guide dogs in FDA regulations date from 1986, before the 1991 regulations under the Americans with Disabilities Act fleshed out access provisions for service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The reason the FDA has not taken service animals into consideration is probably administrative inertia in continuing to use the first rule (21 CFR 110.35) as a template for later rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, apparently in none of the subsequent regulatory proposals did anyone with a service animal comment on the restrictive language, nor that I can find did any service animal organization submit comments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I must acknowledge that I also failed to notice when proposals only mentioning guide dogs, not service animals, were published in the Federal Register in 2013.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is too late to submit comments on the proposals as they have been made final, but, fortunately, there is a way to raise the issue outside of the regulatory process.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The concept of service animals is not, however, foreign to the FDA as the <a href="http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/RetailFoodProtection/FoodCode/ucm374275.htm" target="_blank"><i>2013 Food Code</i></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, a document issued jointly by the FDA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Food Safety and Inspection Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), uses the term multiple times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Locations with Animal Access Restrictions under FDA Regulations </b></div>
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Before discussing the various types of dogs that may be present in agricultural and food production operations, it might be helpful to list general locations where specific types of dogs and other animals are permitted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This table generally moves from the more confined locations (buildings and manufacturing plants) to more open locations (water sources, growing areas, and farms).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As is evident in the table, and further explained below, the more restricted areas are generally only supposed to be open to certain dogs with specialized training and skills, while more open areas such as fields and farmyards are accepted as inevitably having more types of animals, even grazing and wild animals, under less or no control.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: .45in; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"><tbody>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Locations Where FDA Rules Specify Limitations on Animal Access</span></b></div>
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<b>Location/<i>type of food</i></b></div>
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<b>Animals allowed (<i>dogs</i>)</b></div>
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<b>Provision/effective date </b></div>
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Buildings and facilities used in manufacturing, packing, or holding <i>human food</i> (Part 110)</div>
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<i>Guard and guide dogs</i> may be allowed in some areas of a plant if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, or food-packaging materials. </div>
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21 CFR 110.35 <i>Pest control </i>(removed after 9/17/2018, but effectively replaced by 21 CFR 117.35 on 11/16/2015; this replaces a non-binding provision with a binding provision.)</div>
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Physical plant and grounds used in manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for <i>dietary supplements</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Part 111)</div>
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<i>Guard or guide dogs</i> are allowed in some areas of your physical plant if the presence of the dogs will not result in contamination of components, dietary supplements, or contact surfaces. </div>
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21 CFR 111.15, effective since 2007.</div>
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Fully-enclosed buildings used in growing, harvesting, packing and holding of <i>produce (fruits and vegetables) for human consumption </i>(Part 112)</div>
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Domesticated animals must be excluded from fully-enclosed buildings where covered produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing material is exposed, unless such animals can be separated from such activities in the fully-enclosed building by “location, time or partition.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However: “<i>Guard or guide dogs</i> may be allowed in some areas of a fully enclosed building if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing materials.”</div>
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21 CFR 112.127, effective 1/26/2016, with different compliance dates depending on the size of the business (an income determination).</div>
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Areas of a plant used for manufacturing of <i>human food</i> (Part 117)</div>
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… <i>Guard, guide, or pest-detecting dogs</i> may be allowed in some areas of a plant if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, or food-packaging materials.</div>
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21 CFR 117.35, effective 11/16/2015 (as noted above replacing non-binding provision of Part 110 with binding provision in Part 117).</div>
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Water sources, water distribution system, and pooling of water used in growing, harvesting, packing and holding of <i>produce (fruits and vegetables) for human consumption </i>(Part 112)</div>
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Water sources must be kept free of domesticated animals.</div>
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21 CFR 112.42, effective 1/26/2016. </div>
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Areas, including growing areas where” there is a reasonable probability that grazing animals, working animals, or animal intrusion will contaminate” <i>produce (fruit and vegetables)</i> (Part 112) </div>
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Grower must evaluate whether produce can be harvested without reasonable likelihood of contamination. Working animal is defined broadly to include “<i>dogs</i>, cats, or chickens” used to deter pests in growing areas, as wells as “<i>guard dogs</i> used to keep other animals out of fields.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This would seem to include <i>livestock guarding dogs</i> used to deter predators.</div>
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21 CFR 112.83, effective 1/26/2016.</div>
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<b>Guide, Guard, and Pest-Detecting Dogs </b></div>
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A rule added to 21 CFR Part 110 (Current Good Manufacturing Practice in Manufacturing, Packing, or Holding Human Food) in 1986 (51 Fed. Reg. 22475, June 19, 1986) contained a provision on pest control (21 CFR 110.35) that included the sentence: “Guard or guide dogs may be allowed in some areas of a plant if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, or food-packaging materials.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The wording of this sentence has continued to the present, though the provision will now be moved to new 21 CFR 117.35, where it will be modified to add a reference to “pest-detecting dogs.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(There will be a nearly two-year interval where both provisions will technically be effective because of staggered effective dates, though because of the identical language, this will present no additional burden.)</div>
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Guide dogs are also mentioned in 21 CFR Part 111 (Current Good Manufacturing Practice in Manufacturing, Packaging, Labeling, or Holding Operations for Dietary Supplements), at 21 CFR 111.15, which includes a sentence which differs from that in 21 CFR 110.35 only by the italicized words: </div>
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Guard or guide dogs are allowed in some areas of your physical plant if the presence of the dogs will not result in contamination of <i>components</i>, <i>dietary supplements</i>, or contact surfaces.</div>
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The difference, of course, is that Part 111 deals only with manufacturing practice regarding dietary supplements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This provision was proposed in 2003 (60 Fed. Reg. 12158, March 13, 2003) and finalized in 2007 (72 Fed. Reg. 34752, June 25, 2007), well within the modern era of ADA regulation, but no service dog user or organization commented on the restrictive reference to guide dogs only.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The “physical plant” includes the “building, structure, or parts thereof, used for or in connection with the manufacturing, processing, packing, or holding of human food” (80 Fed. Reg. 55938, September 17, 2015; 21 CFR 117.3).</div>
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New Part 112, Standards for the Growing, Harvesting, Packing, and Holding of Produce for Human Consumption, added in 2015 (80 Fed. Reg. 74357, November 27, 2015; proposed 2013), also mentions guide dogs along with guard dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under 21 CFR 112.127:</div>
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(a) You must take reasonable precautions to prevent contamination of covered produce, food contact surfaces, and food-packing materials in fully-enclosed buildings with known or reasonably foreseeable hazards from domesticated animals by:</div>
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(1) Excluding domesticated animals from fully-enclosed buildings where covered produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing material is exposed; or</div>
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(2) Separating domesticated animals in a fully enclosed building from an area where a covered activity is conducted on covered produce by location, time, or partition.</div>
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(b) <i>Guard or guide dogs</i> may be allowed in some areas of a fully enclosed building if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing materials.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(emphasis added)</div>
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Because the provision is not merely a manufacturing provision, but also covers the growing and harvesting of produce within an agricultural operation, the precautions that must be taken include taking such steps as are reasonable with regard to animals such as livestock, which might contaminate areas where produce (fruit and vegetables) are being grown or harvested.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, putting up a fence to keep cattle out of a corn field might be expected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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As mentioned in the first paragraph under this heading, some of Part 110 is being moved to new Part 117, Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food, and new 21 CFR 117.35 will continue the guard and guide dog reference for manufacturing of food (except for Part 111, concerning dietary supplements), with the addition of “pest-detecting dogs.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There appears no logical reason why pest-detection dogs were not added to the parallel provisions mentioning guard and guide dogs in Parts 111 and 112.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Working Animals</b></div>
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Under new 21 CFR Part 112, references to “working animals” can include dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subpart I of Part 112 concerns domesticated and wild animals, and 21 CFR 112.83(a) states:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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You must take the steps set forth in paragraph (b) of this section if under the circumstances there is a reasonable probability that grazing animals, <i>working animals</i>, or animal intrusion will contaminate covered produce.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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There are additional references to working animals in 21 CFR 112.32 stating that hygienic practices require avoiding contact with animals other than working animals and requiring steps to minimize the likelihood of contamination from contact with working animals including washing hands after contact. </div>
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“Working animal” is not defined in the regulations but the preamble describes this category as including “horses, dogs, cats, and chickens” (80 Fed. Reg. 74481), and another passage refers to “using dogs, cats, or chickens to deter pests in growing areas…” and “using guard dogs to keep other animals out of fields” (80 Fed. Reg.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>74480-1). This would seem to be broad enough to include livestock guarding dogs, and should probably include livestock herding dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet another passage in the preamble distinguishes working animals from “grazing animals” (80 Fed. Reg. 74370). </div>
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<b>Domesticated Animals</b></div>
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Yet another term found in the regulations just finalized that can include dogs is “domesticated animal.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This term also is not formally defined, though the preamble contains a parenthetical to the term “domesticated animals (such as livestock, working animals, and pets)…” (80 Fed. Reg. 74478).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(It is probably not too much of a stretch to argue that since the parenthetical does not mention guide or guard dogs, these also fit within the category of working animal.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New 21 CFR 112.42 requires keeping water sources “free of … domesticated animals, and other possible sources of contamination of covered produce to the extent practicable….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Specifically as to pets, the FDA states: </div>
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You are permitted to have cats or dogs on your covered farm, provided that … you (1) adequately control their excreta and litter and (2) maintain a system for control of their excreta and litter. These measures are necessary to prevent contamination of covered produce, food-contact surfaces, areas used for a covered activity, agricultural water sources, and agricultural water distribution systems with waste from your cats or dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(80 Fed. Reg. 74495; see also new 21 CFR 112.134.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thus, a covered farm, one that grows food and produce for human consumption, need<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>not exclude its own pets, but might want to restrict visitors from brining in large numbers of pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Why Were Service Animals Not Considered by the FDA? </b></div>
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None of the commenters on the 2013 proposals mentioned service dogs or service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In contrast, the Pennsylvania Vegetable Growers Association (comment of Brian Campbell, President) noted that “dogs are sometimes used to control animal intrusions into fields…,” an observation which the drafters of the regulations adapted in the preamble.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr. Richard Bonanno, President of the Massachusetts Farm Bureau Federation, noted the need for the “intermittent presence of service animals, such as dogs to scare away wildlife or geese that may eat weeds….” George Greig, Secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture noted that dogs and cats are used “for pest control and/or keeping other animals out of fields and outbuildings.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, pest-detection dogs were recognized in the final rules, but service animals were not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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It may be that if the issue of a non-guide service dog ever arises in a food production context, the relevant authorities will consider that such service dogs are to be treated the same way as guide dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A personal communication with someone who has worked in agricultural settings has confirmed that this has been the case in her experience, and the references to service animals in the <i>Food Code</i>, discussed next, would certainly support such an argument.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, in an email communication with an official of the FDA, the official suggested that the service animals would be in the same category as domesticated animals, i.e., in no better position for access than grazing animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>2013 Food Code</b></div>
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As stated at the beginning, the 2013 Food Code (“Code”) issued by three agencies, including the FDA and the CDC, both inside the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Food Safety and Inspection Service inside the USDA, makes numerous references to service animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i>Code</i> (p. 20) defines a service animals as “an animal such as a guide dog, signal dog, or other animal individually trained to provide assistance to an individual with a disability.” Employees are to “clean their hands and exposed portions of their arms” after “caring for or handling SERVICE ANIMALS or aquatic animals….” (2-301.14, p. 47).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Service animals controlled by a<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“disabled EMPLOYEE or PERSON” may be in “areas that are not used for FOOD preparation and that are usually open for customers, such as dining and sales areas … if a health or safety HAZARD will not result from the presence or activities of the SERVICE ANIMAL.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following general statement is made (p. 537) regarding food employees with service animals:</div>
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Decisions regarding a food employee or applicant with a disability who needs to use a service animal should be made on a case-by-case basis. An employer must comply with health and safety requirements, but is obligated to consider whether there is a reasonable accommodation that can be made.</div>
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For additional information, the Code lists a number of releases of the Department of Justice regarding service animals, as well as the <a href="http://adata.org/" target="_blank">ADA website</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is clear that some officials inside the FDA are familiar with service animals, though perhaps the use of the more modern term in the <i>Code</i> is to be credited to one of the other agencies involved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Telling the FDA about a Service Animal</b></div>
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There is one way that service dog users can bring this issue to the FDA’s attention, should they wish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The FDA has a system, the <a href="http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/FSMA/ucm459719.htm" target="_blank">FDA Technical Assistance Network</a>, which has an icon, “Submit Inquiry,” where a question may be posed to the FDA and which will, I am assured, be directed to the correct official inside of the agency.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those who have service animals who may be affected by these rules should consider sending a comment to this effect, along with any questions about the reach of the rules, through this mechanism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I submitted the following comment by this means:</div>
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Although it is too late to submit formal comments regarding the recent Food and Drug Administration rules that discuss various types of trained dogs, pets, and other animals in food production environments (21 CFR 112.127; 21 CFR 117.35), I should like to note that the FDA’s regulatory limitation of service animals to guide dogs is contrary to recent legal developments regarding animals that are used by people with various types of disabilities other than blindness and vision impairment, and is also more limiting than the positions of the FDA itself as contained in the <i>2013 Food Code</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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In this connection, I believe that, in future revisions of 21 CFR 111.15, 112.127, and 117.35 (the latter replacing 21 CFR 110.35), the FDA should replace the term “guide dog” with “service animal.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Should it be deemed appropriate to define the term “service animal,” I suggest that the definition provided by the Department of Justice in 28 CFR 36.104 be used: “Service animal means any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability.” The <i>2013 Food Code</i> (6-501.115, p. 536) refers to 28 CFR 36.104 as the source of that document’s definition of service animal (though using a now outdated version of the Title 28 provision).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this connection it is perhaps also worth noting that the Department of Justice recognizes that miniature horses have been trained to perform functions similar to those provided by guide dogs and therefore are allowed similar access to public accommodations (see 28 CFR 36.302(c)(9)). I accept that miniature horses would involve considerations that apply to certain grazing animals in the FDA regulations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thank you for considering these observations....<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The only response I have received so far was an unsigned email to my "FCIC Inquiry" advising me to submit my comments to "your local or state health department." This was either computer-generated (or at least mindlessly generated) as no state or local health department would have the authority to consider, much less correct, negligent drafting of federal regulations. It must be hoped that, if more comments along the lines of what I have submitted are received, the issue will begin to be addressed by some higher intelligence inside the FDA. </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion </b></div>
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The actual level of inspection of farms and food-production facilities has dramatically decreased under the Obama administration according to experts in the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(See, for example, Joe Ferguson, “Retired USDA Inspectors Share Concerns about HIMP Project,” <a href="http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2015/11/retired-usda-inspectors-share-food-safety-concerns-about-himp-project/#.Vma3ReIsBAM" target="_blank">Food Safety News, November 16, 2015</a>; Tony Corbo, “USDA Continues to Deceive on Meat Inspections,” <a href="http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/insight/usda-continues-deceive-meat-inspections" target="_blank">Food & Water Watch, April 17, 2014</a>.) So, admittedly, the chance that an inspector might actually raise an issue with regard to a non-guide service dog in an agricultural setting is not very likely. </div>
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The FDA is to be praised for taking pest-detection dogs into consideration with regard to manufacturing plants (Part 117), and should probably expand their usage to fully-enclosed buildings (Part 112) and manufacturing plants for dietary supplements (Part 111).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>References to guide dogs should be expanded to service dogs, as it is as likely that people with disabilities other than vision impairments are working in the food industry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Where dogs may be in fields and around grazing animals, references to guard dogs should clarify that in some of these environments the dogs might be livestock herding and protection dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since there are no open regulatory projects on which comments are still being received, such modifications may have to wait, but those interested in these issues should take advantage of the portal within the FDA Technical Assistance Network.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thanks to Sarah Bell for bringing to my attention the fact that under the Obama administration food inspection personnel have been reduced considerably, all but eliminating an important safety threshold on the food we eat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks also to Veronica Morris, Brad Morris, and Chanda Hagen for suggestions and information regarding service animals used in agricultural settings. Thanks to Emma Ertinger of the National Sustainable Agricultural Coalition for information concerning FSMA rules and FDA procedures. </div>
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© John Ensminger 2015</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">FDA Access Rules Regarding Dogs and Other Animals in Food Production Environments </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">(Comprehensive Table of CFR Title 21 References)</span></b></div>
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<b>Dog or animal category</b></div>
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<b>CFR section</b></div>
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<b>Relevant regulatory text</b></div>
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<b>Status/Notes</b></div>
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<b>Guard dog</b> (note reference under “working animal” below to using “guard dogs to keep other animals out of fields” (80 FR 74481))</div>
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(see 21 CFR 100.35(c) and 21 CFR 100.15(d) below)</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Guide dog</b></div>
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<b>Part 110</b>—Current Good Manufacturing Practice in Manufacturing, Packing, or Holding Human Food</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Subpart B</b>—Buildings and Facilities </div>
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<b>21 CFR 110.35 </b>Sanitary operations…</div>
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(c) <i>Pest control</i>.</div>
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… Guard or guide dogs may be allowed in some areas of a plant if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, or food-packaging materials.</div>
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51 FR 22475, June 19, 1986; amended 54 FR 24892, June 12, 1989;</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Part 110</b> removed and reserved, effective September 17, 2018 (80 FR 56144, September 17, 2015); FDA is re-establishing “certain non-binding provisions of part 110 in part 117 as binding provisions.” (80 FR 55939)</div>
</td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;"> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.5in;" valign="top" width="144"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Part 111</b>-Current Good Manufacturing Practice in Manufacturing, Packaging, Labeling, or Holding Operations for Dietary Supplements </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Subpart C</b>—Physical Plant and Grounds </div>
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<b>21 CFR 111.15</b> What sanitation requirements apply to your physical plant and grounds?</div>
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…</div>
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(d). <i>Pest control</i>.</div>
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(1) …<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Guard or guide dogs are allowed in some areas of your physical plant if the presence of the dogs will not result in contamination of components, dietary supplements, or contact surfaces….</div>
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Proposed March 13, 2003, 68 Fed. Reg. 12158; finalized June 25, 2007, 72 Fed. Reg. 34752.</div>
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<b>Part 112—</b>Standards for the Growing, Harvesting, Packing, and Holding of Produce for Human Consumption</div>
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<b>Subpart L—</b>Equipment, Tools, Buildings, and Sanitation</div>
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<b>21 CFR 112.127</b> What requirements apply regarding domesticated animals in and around a fully-enclosed building?</div>
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(a) You must take reasonable precautions to prevent contamination of covered produce, food contact surfaces, and food-packing materials in fully-enclosed buildings with known or reasonably foreseeable hazards from domesticated animals by:</div>
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(1) Excluding domesticated animals from fully-enclosed buildings where covered produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing material is exposed; or</div>
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(2) Separating domesticated animals in a fully=enclosed building from an area where a covered activity is conducted on covered produce by location, time, or partition.</div>
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(b) Guard or guide dogs may be allowed in some areas of a fully enclosed building if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of produce, food contact surfaces, or food-packing materials.</div>
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Effective January 26, 2016 (80 FR 74357, 74528, November 27, 2015; proposed 78 Fed. Reg. 3504, January 16, 2013), but different compliance dates depending on the size of the business (an income determination).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Part 117</b>—Current Good Manufacturing Practice, Hazard Analysis, and Risk-Based Preventive Controls for Human Food</div>
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<b>Subpart B—</b>Current Good Manufacturing Practices</div>
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<b>21 CFR 117.35</b> Sanitary operations</div>
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…</div>
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(c) <i>Pest control</i>.</div>
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… Guard, guide, or pest-detecting dogs may be allowed in some areas of a plant if the presence of the dogs is unlikely to result in contamination of food, food-contact surfaces, or food-packaging materials.</div>
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Effective November 16, 2015 (80 FR 56131, September 17, 2015); note that there appear to be dates where both the requirements of Part 110 and Part 117 apply, though the identity of language makes this irrelevant. </div>
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<b>Pest-detecting dog </b></div>
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(see 21 CFR 117.35 above)</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Domesticated animals</b> (which can include “livestock, working animals, and pets” (80 FR 74478); the absence of reference to guide dogs here suggests that in this connection at least a guide dog is a working animal) </div>
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(see 21 CFR 112.127 above)</div>
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<b>Subpart E</b>—Agricultural Water</div>
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<b>21 CFR 112.42</b> What requirements apply to my agricultural water sources, water distribution system, and pooling of water?</div>
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<br /></div>
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(c) You must adequately maintain all agricultural water sources to the extent they are under your control (such as wells). Such maintenance includes regularly inspecting each source to identify any conditions that are reasonably likely to introduce known or</div>
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reasonably foreseeable hazards into or onto covered produce or food contact surfaces; correcting any significant deficiencies (<i>e.g., </i>repairs to well cap, well casing, sanitary seals, piping tanks and treatment equipment, and control of cross-connections); and keeping the source free of debris, trash, domesticated animals, and other possible sources of contamination of covered produce to the extent practicable and appropriate under the circumstances.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>21 CFR 112.134</b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What must I do to control animal excreta and litter from domesticated animals that are under my control?</div>
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(a) If you have domesticated animals, to prevent contamination of covered produce, food contact surfaces, areas used for a covered activity, agricultural water sources, or agricultural water distribution systems with animal waste, you must:</div>
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(1) Adequately control their excreta and litter; and</div>
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(2) Maintain a system for control of animal excreta and litter.</div>
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(b) [Reserved]</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Working animal</b> (which can include “horses, dogs, cats, and chickens” (80 FR 74481, November 27, 2015); distinguished from “grazing animals” (80 FR 74370, 74481); “using dogs, cats, or chickens to deter pests in growing areas, or prevent farms from using guard dogs to keep other animals out of fields” (80 FR 74480-1); “working animals such as horses used for tilling and harvest activities and transporting produce” (80 FR 74480)) </div>
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<b>Part 112—</b>Standards for the Growing, Harvesting, Packing, and Holding of Produce for Human Consumption</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Subpart I—</b>Domesticated and Wild Animals</div>
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<b>21 CFR 112.83 </b>What requirements apply regarding grazing animals, working animals, and animal intrusion?</div>
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<br /></div>
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(a) You must take the steps set forth in paragraph (b) of this section if under the circumstances there is a reasonable probability that grazing animals, working animals, or animal intrusion will contaminate covered produce.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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(b) You must:</div>
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(1) Assess the relevant areas used for a covered activity for evidence of potential contamination of covered produce as needed during the growing season (based on your covered produce; your practices and conditions; and your observations and experience); and</div>
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(2) If significant evidence of potential contamination is found (such as observation of animals, animal excreta or crop destruction), you must evaluate whether the covered produce can be harvested in accordance with the requirements of § 112.112 and take measures reasonably necessary during growing to assist you later during harvest when you must identify, and not harvest, covered produce that is reasonably likely to be contaminated with a known or reasonably foreseeable hazard.</div>
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See notes on 21 CFR 112.127 above.</div>
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John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-19345191992563290462015-11-11T06:41:00.000-05:002017-03-30T10:15:34.228-04:00Keeping the Homeless and Their Pets Together in Shelters and Housing: A Call for a Change in Public Attitudes, Governmental Priorities, and the Law<div class="MsoNormal">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRyqBshV2kklBaxqsXp4vJn3T1Dfa_UhWljWIT-GdatUX8-kYBcXM_5UPjEzgVF8CkTNGOJEN0CWQYGKET2xaI2ajyCGvs9ftCcQXoGElTzw-FJkmctWF_S6yge9QPr1us_Vy4XssXluc/s1600/Bologna.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="365" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRyqBshV2kklBaxqsXp4vJn3T1Dfa_UhWljWIT-GdatUX8-kYBcXM_5UPjEzgVF8CkTNGOJEN0CWQYGKET2xaI2ajyCGvs9ftCcQXoGElTzw-FJkmctWF_S6yge9QPr1us_Vy4XssXluc/s400/Bologna.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via dell' Independenza, Bologna, October 2014 (courtesy Joan Ensminger)</td></tr>
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Alessandro, I will call him, spends many days on the west side of the Via dell’ Independenza in Bologna, Italy, several blocks north of the Piazza del Nettuno with the fountain atop which stands the bronze Neptune cast by Giambologna in 1567.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alessandro spreads the ground cover of his sleeping bag to his right for his dogs, Cabaletto and Raissa, though he usually holds Raissa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He sits cross-legged on the pavement, a heavy backpack with his worldly possessions behind him to serve as a chair back when needed and positioned to slip on quickly if he has to move, though two police pass on horses once when I am near him and show no interest. Food and water dishes for his dogs are beside him and there is a plate in which he hopes some of the dense flow of well-dressed pedestrians—the clothing stores are expensive at this level of the Independenza—will be kind enough to drop a few coins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first thing I notice is how well the dogs are cared for. </div>
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Marta, again not her real name, sits against a building on the Vicolo Doria in Rome, an alley close to the Via del Corso just north of the Altare della Patria which casts a long shadow from the Capitoline in early October.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her dog is also healthy and relaxed despite the constant foot traffic and the incessant blare of horns as cars jostle for position around the Piazza Venezia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She focuses on her dog as if the mere sight of him calms the storm that is her life, barely nodding when someone puts a coin in the basket she places more than a foot before the blanket on which she and the dog live for hours each day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She is surprised when I begin to speak to her and both she and the dog look up to see if something is wrong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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There was one other homeless couple with two dogs in Bologna, but I did not talk to them and so did not photograph them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They did not put a dish before their dogs but rather only before him when he played his guitar in the Piazza Maggiore.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She would sit with the dogs on one of the steps of the Basilica San Petronio, or further away.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I would not have known they were together had I not seen them several times late near the Novocento, his guitar in its case, the rest of their possessions in an assortment of bags, the dogs resting beside them, a family wrapping itself in what privacy could be found on the Bolognese streets through the night.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I was struck by the fact that they seemed never to try to use the dogs to obtain sympathy or coins.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They reminded me of some of the people who lived in People’s Park in Berkeley in 1969.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Drugs?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I suspected so, but only because I still trust instincts developed <a href="http://sailingofisis.blogspot.com/2014/11/when-operation-of-machine-makes-you-so.html" target="_blank">long ago</a> when I could move inconspicuously between the worlds of the classroom and the street.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Redemption Narratives</b></div>
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The most comprehensive discussion of the homeless and their pets is contained in a book, recently issued in paperback form, by Leslie Irvine, a professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Colorado at Boulder, who has also written some seminal papers on the topic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The book, <i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/My-Dog-Always-Eats-First/dp/1588268888" target="_blank">My Dog Always Eats First: Homeless People & Their Animals</a> </i>(Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2012)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, examines the narratives homeless people develop to explain to themselves and to those who will listen how they reached where they are, what their lives are like, and what their pets mean to them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Irvine begins the book with a sort of redemption narrative about herself, about how she began to develop an interest in and sympathy for the homeless who have pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While driving in Boulder one day, she saw a panhandler on the narrow median of a highway with a dog. She parked her car, walked to the median and offered to buy the dog from the homeless man, hoping to give the animal a better life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She was taken aback at the panhandler’s almost violent reaction, accusing her of being a yuppie meddler.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Vicolo Doria, Rome, October 2014</td></tr>
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I suppose I now have my own redemption narrative on this issue, which has brought me from being an unsympathetic observer of the homeless and their pets to someone who believes that the lack of any significant, much less comprehensive, social policy regarding these people and animals is a failure of our American democracy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My redemption narrative probably began in Berkeley (one of the places where Irvine studied the homeless and their pets, though long after my time there), where every summer there were thousands of runaway teenagers panhandling on Telegraph Avenue and along the edge of the campus, setting up tents and rolling out sleeping bags in the parks around the city.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many had brought dogs and cats with them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I always felt sorry for the animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Life and a legal career soon led me to New York City, where in the 1970s into the 1980s there were corrugated cardboard camps set up by the homeless (an older population than I had seen in Berkeley) along the streets between the Port Authority and Penn Station, where on weekdays I took a train to Trenton for work.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were dogs in those camps.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“I’m not giving the money to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m giving it to the dog,” I’m sure I said many times either to someone I was with or to myself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I never tried to buy a dog, but I felt sorry, even angry, for the lives the animals were leading. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They had no choice in their circumstances.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though enough of a liberal not to put all the blame on the homeless themselves, I had much less sympathy for their plight than I had for the dogs. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It did not occur to me that there might be joys in this existence both for the homeless people and for their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Then I moved to the Hudson Valley, 80 miles north of the city, and seldom thought about or saw homeless people or their pets for many years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It took a trip to Italy for me to begin to think about this in new ways.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>How Many Homeless Have Pets? </b></div>
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A Nevada nonprofit organization, <a href="http://www.petsofthehomeless.org/about-us/faqs/" target="_blank">Pets of the Homeless</a>, states in the FAQs on its website<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>that there are about 3.5 million homeless Americans and five to ten percent of them have dogs or cats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“In some areas of the country the rate is as high as 24%.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Genevieve Frederick, the founder of this organization, surveyed a large number of homeless shelters to obtain this statistic and advises me that she regards it as conservative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some homeless may deny having pets to people conducting surveys for fear of being denied services. Surveys of the homeless are notoriously difficult to conduct but government statistics do not put the number of homeless as high.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Department of Housing and Urban Development provides Congress with an estimate of the number of homeless each January.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their latest published report (<a href="https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2014-AHAR-Part1.pdf" target="_blank">2014</a>) states:</div>
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In January 2014, 578,424 people were homeless on a given night. Most (69 percent) were staying in residential programs for homeless people, and the rest (31 percent) were found in unsheltered locations.</div>
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HUD does not estimate numbers of homeless with pets, though the agency says that of this number there were 216,261 homeless people in families and 135,701 children.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Rhoades et al. (2012) found that of 398 homeless youth at two drop-in centers in Los Angeles, 23% reported having a pet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem (2012) refers to an unpublished 2009 study of street youth in Toronto as finding that of 245 youth, “12.8% of participants reported being a pet owner.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al. (2013), in a study of homeless youth in Canada, cited Dr. Stephen Hwang of the University of Toronto as indicating that in Toronto about 8% of homeless and 11% of “vulnerably housed individuals” have companion animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Hwang has indicated to me that he has not subsequently gathered any additional data or published his findings on how many homeless people have pets.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 2009, Cronley et al., using data from a Homeless Management Information System found that 5.5% of the homeless in the system reported caring for an animal, and 2% had been refused housing due to animal caretaking (a much lower refusal percentage than found by Singer et al. 1995, discussed below).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their findings “suggest that first-time homeless, Euro-American women who were homeless due to domestic violence were the most likely to say they were caring for animals.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A survey of homeless street youth in Toronto by Stephen Gaetz (chapter 3 in Hulchanski et al. 2009) found that 7.6% of homeless young people had obtained a dog for protection, 10.2% of boys and 4.3% of girls. This compared with 3.2% of domiciled youth (2.6% of boys but 4.0% of girls).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gaetz et al. (2013) described “a number of situations where a group of street youth shared a dog and cared for it together, as a street family….”</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Homeless Individuals by State (HUD 2014)</td></tr>
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Unfortunately, most surveys of the number of homeless individuals with pets are specific to regions or age groups and an overall estimate is inevitably rough.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, it is clear that at there are currently at least 60,000 but perhaps as many as 300,000 people in the U.S. who are homeless with pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Public Perception of the Homeless Having Pets</b></div>
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I have already acknowledged that among my initial reactions to homeless people having pets were that they were using the animals as props for begging and that the animals had a horrible life, perhaps little better than being confined in the cage of a pound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even if the animals were not scheduled to be euthanized, the risks of living with the homeless on the streets included high rates of disease and the ever-present chance of running into traffic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Irvine et al. (2012) report that homeless people say they are often criticized for having pets and failing to give them a physical home. They state that most of 60 homeless people they interviewed had encountered criticism for having a pet, with people telling them that they should not have a pet if they cannot give the pet a home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some reported that people had tried to buy their dogs to give them a home (as Irvine herself recounts having tried to do).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The homeless sometimes received threats that Animal Control would be called to take a pet away from them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Lem et al. (2013) found that homeless people themselves were inclined to see the use of companion animals for panhandling as exploitative, though some who had done it “acknowledged that companion animals often improved earnings,” particularly with younger animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One young man said that when his dog was between 16 weeks and six months, “I could almost guarantee $100 day every day.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al. described a man who had lost his dog after it was hit by a car, which depressed him so much that he did not want to get another dog for fear of losing it the same way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thompson et al. (2014) found that loss of a pet on becoming homeless was a source of considerable grief among homeless in Australia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Lives of Homeless Pets </b></div>
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Unlike my ill-informed knee jerk reaction that homeless people obtain pets to improve their success in panhandling, a growing number of sociological and psychological studies, many included in the list of sources at the end of this blog, make it clear that the relationships of the homeless and their pets are generally the same as the rest of us have with our animals. Lem et al. (2013) found that homeless people referred to their pets as best friends, children, and family members. If anything, the animals of the homeless may get more attention, and more play time, than those of us with busy schedules ever give to our pets. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al., writing about “street-involved youth” in Canada, found that “pet before self” was a common theme among those they spoke with. Irvine found this characteristic so widespread and generally compelling that she referred to it in the first part of the title of her book, <i>My Dog Always Eats First</i>. Irvine (p. 30) says that most dogs, “due to the around-the-clock company of their guardians, were relaxed and attentive: most had received some training and knew at least the basic commands, such as ‘sit.’”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Just as many of us want pets because we had them as children, Kidd and Kidd (1994) concluded that homeless people with pets were more likely to have had pets as children than was the case for homeless people without pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The homeless, like the disabled and the rest of us (Mader et al. 1989), may remark on how the animals increase interactions with other people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al. (2013) interviewed one young man who said that by having a dog with him, “people could see a better side of me than they usually would.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taylor et al. (2004) found that among “homeless respondents, non-dog owners were significantly more likely than dog owners to believe that having a dog helped initiate conversations with the public.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There may be a gender bias in who talks to the homeless with pets in that these researchers report that “women were significantly more likely to show concern for a homeless person’s dog’s welfare than men.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The homeless are often more conscious of the protection provided by their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gaetz et al. (2013) said that young homeless women found a dog “a source of security and comfort but also made it difficult to access necessary social services,” including public transportation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bukowski and Buetow (2011) found that homeless women treated their dogs “like family,” and depended on them for protection, sometimes to the point where even if they were offered housing they “would continue to live outdoors if their dogs could not go with them.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In describing how the homeless camping in the woods often depend on the protective behavior of their dogs, Irvine’s account in her book (p. 116) reminded me of the ancient value of dogs to the human camp.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The loyalty of dogs has always been important to humans, but it takes a sharper edge with the homeless.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bender et al. (2007) quote a street youth as saying that his dog would stay with him “no matter what,” unlike the people he often met “out there.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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[A dog] gives you somebody to talk to—I mean my dog is my home—he keeps me warm when it’s cold and gives me somebody to talk to when I’m walking down the highway.</div>
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Lynn Rew (2000) noted that homeless adolescents “often recognize the therapeutic value of pets.” She correctly argues that “[i]nterventions that enhance this coping strategy need to be developed and tested.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Like other people who seek to find rental housing, homeless people may encounter rejection because of a dog of the wrong breed or one that is too large. Lem et al. (2013) note that one homeless youth with a pit bull said that it was more difficult to find housing or shelter because his dog was a pit bull.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tina Rasnow (2002) refers to a homeless individual not moving into housing because his dogs were slightly larger than allowed by a housing project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Obtaining Dog Food and Veterinary Care </b></div>
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Caring for a pet is also important for many homeless, perhaps even more important for some than being protected by it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Irvine (p. 81) says of one woman:</div>
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Roe found that the responsibilities of caring for her dogs lifted her spirits when she felt sorry for herself; the dogs reminded her that she had things to do…. the animal provides important elements of predictability and permanence. </div>
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Those domiciled individuals more tolerant of the homeless having pets often provide dog food to homeless individuals they want to help because of concern for the pets, as I have done from time to time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Animal control services and humane societies in many cities provide free pet food (Irvine, p. 60).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some soup kitchens provide dog food, and some pet stores hand out dog food as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some homeless people said they had never had difficulty getting enough food for a dog and Irvine et al. (2012) said that, in their sample, “none of the pets of the homeless went hungry.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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There has apparently been a change in this regard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Irvine et al. (2012) note that Kidd and Kidd (1994) had reported that about half of the homeless with pets had reported difficulty in getting enough food for their animals. </div>
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Obtaining veterinary care for their pets can also be a challenge for the homeless, though Irvine et al. (2012) indicate there are organizations that provide free veterinary services for the homeless, such as the <a href="http://www.sfccc.org/veterinary-street-outreach-services-vetsos/" target="_blank">Veterinary Street Outreach Service <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>in San Francisco</a>, and similar organizations in many cities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Indeed, Irvine in her book, at p. 22, notes that it was largely with the help of veterinarians and veterinary assistants that she was able to begin interviewing homeless people about their pets.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taylor et al. (2004) found that dog-owning homeless people were less likely to obtain health care services for themselves than were non-dog owning homeless people, “and health scores showed a reversed trend compare to that expected for the general population, with dog owners scoring lower than non-dog owners.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So, in addition to feeding their animals before themselves, some homeless people may be obtaining medical services for their animals before they seek it for themselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Pets as Redeemers </b></div>
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Perhaps the greatest difference between how the homeless describe their animals and how the rest of us do is that the homeless will often mention how a pet saved them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Singer et al. (1995) found that “homeless pet owners were not markedly depressed and hopeless,” yet Irvine (2013) heard many “personal narratives in which homeless and formerly homeless people portray a pet dog or cat as either motivating them to change their lives or preventing them from taking their lives.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Irvine “wanted to learn how homeless people narrated the slices of their lives that involve a relationship with an animal.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One woman who Irvine called Donna said she stopped using heroin because of a German shepherd-Lab mix named Athena that had been rescued by another woman from a shelter where the dog had been scheduled to be euthanized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Donna credited Athena with getting her out of an abusive relationship with a man who took her money and beat her up. Her mother allowed Donna to move into her house, but told Donna she would have to be clean.</div>
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“I said to myself, ‘My dog comes first in my life. Would I rather use drugs, or feed my dog?’ And I fell in love with Athena, so I gave up the needle. Gave up the pipe. I gave up liquor. Everything.”</div>
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Donna began to receive Supplemental Security Income (SSI).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When Athena died of cancer at age 13, a pet supply store held a memorial service for her and a veterinary clinic arranged for cremation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Donna has kept the ashes because she wants them mixed and distributed with hers when she dies.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Donna also began being treated for HIV once she had Athena and had given up drugs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Another person Irvine interviewed was panhandling at the exit of a shopping center in Boulder, Colorado, holding a sign that read, “Sober.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Doing the best I can.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Please help.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This woman—Irvine gave her the pseudonym of Trish—had a Jack Russell Terrier named Pixel that was at her side in a dog bed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although she lived in a condemned mobile home, she did not leave Pixel in it because Pixel, according to Trish, had separation anxiety and would rather be with Trish out in the cold than by himself. Trish said that she had hit “rock bottom” and had wanted to die, but she couldn’t give up “because I had something else to take care of besides myself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So he kept me alive…. I still needed to feed him and keep him warm at night. I didn’t care about myself, but I had to care about him, you know? He got me through a really tough spot.” Trish also told Irvine that Pixel did not like the smell of alcohol and would nip at the heels of people who approached them smelling of alcohol.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Lem et al. (2013), interviewing young homeless people in Canada, found that many reported similar efforts to reduce the use of drugs and alcohol because of a companion animal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One reported that he still used marijuana but had given up heavier drugs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two individuals said that they had lost dogs after being arrested and the animals had been euthanized at shelters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Others reported concern that they could lose their animals by having them seized by police or animal control officers. Fear of losing a pet because of a negative interaction with authorities can be found in many of the studies of the homeless and their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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There is some statistical support for dog ownership reducing drug use among the homeless.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A study in England (Baker 2001; see also Cronley et al. 2009) determined that<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> </span>49% of non-owning but 37% of dog-owning homeless people took drugs. </div>
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<b>The Limited Nature of the Current Safety Net for Pets of the Homeless</b></div>
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Before discussing what needs to be done (however unrealistic my hopes in this regard may be), it is essential to describe what social safety nets presently exist that can help the homeless and their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will be seen that only when certain categories of the homeless or potentially homeless arouse broad public sympathy, absolving them of primary responsibility for their homelessness and placing the blame on natural disasters or abusive husbands, will there be found any effective social safety net.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Shelters for Disaster Victims </b></div>
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The effects of Hurricane Katrina on pets were devastating, and many people were forced to save themselves by leaving their pets behind (McNabb 2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A legislative result of this horror was the Pets Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act of 2006, PL 109-308 (amending 42 U.S.C. 5196), which provided federal funding for “the procurement, construction, leasing, or renovating of emergency shelter facilities and materials that will accommodate people with pets and service animals.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The legislation presumes that displaced individuals or families will soon be returned to their homes, or will be able to obtain new housing, after the crisis passes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The homeless status of the disaster victims is temporary, as is that of the pets, and thus does not generally concern the populations I am discussing here.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Sheltering Abuse Victims and Their Pets <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
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The fact that many abused women will not leave abusers if they cannot take pets with them has received considerable attention from the popular press and legislators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A study by Amy Fitzgerald (2007) found that abused women sometimes stayed with abusive partners longer than they might otherwise have done because their pets “kept them going” and provided them with enough support to cope with the abuse.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some even said the pets were a reason they did not end their own lives.</div>
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Regina Jones (2008), discussing the importance of courts including pets in protective orders, just as spouses and children are covered, recounts a client showing her pictures of her husband cutting “cutting her beloved dog’s ears off with a pair of garden shears.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The husband had sent the ears to his wife.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The correlation of domestic violence with animal abuse is high.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ascione et al. (1997) surveyed shelters concerning intake procedures regarding battered women, finding that 83.3% had observed the coexistence of domestic violence and pet abuse, yet only 27.1% had questions regarding pets in intake questionnaires.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rebecca Wisch (<a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/domestic-violence-and-pets-list-states-include-pets-protection-orders" target="_blank">2014</a>) has assembled data on those states that have enacted legislation to include provisions for pets in domestic violence protection orders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> (See NY Social Services Law section 459-b: "If the victim of domestic violence has a service animal or therapy dog ..., such service animal or therapy dog shall be allowed to accompany the victim at the residential program authorized ....")</span></div>
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The proposed Pet and Women Safety Act of 2015, presently mired in agricultural committees in both the House and Senate, would provide—</div>
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short-term pet shelter and housing assistance, including assistance with respect to expenses incurred for the temporary shelter, housing, boarding, or fostering of the pets of domestic violence victims and other expenses that are incidental to securing the safety of such a pet during the sheltering, housing, or relocation of such victims…. </div>
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This assistance would be in the form of grants to entities established to help victims of domestic violence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A pet for purposes of the Act is defined broadly as “a domesticated animal, such as a dog, cat, bird, rodent, fish, turtle, horse, or other animal that is kept for pleasure rather than for commercial purposes.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This proposal recognizes that some victims of abuse may remain with the abuser in order to protect a pet (Fitzgerald 2007; Flynn 2000; Ascione et al. 1997).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The Act is designed to help “victims of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, or stalking and the pets of such victims.” It would not guarantee that the pet or pets would be kept <i>with</i> the victim while housing is provided for each.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It considers that pet shelter and housing may but need not necessarily be co-located with that provided the victim (“locate and secure safe housing with their pet or safe accommodations for their pet….”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Although the Act refers to “emergency and transitional pet shelter and housing assistance,” as well as “short-term pet shelter and housing assistance,” it does not specify how quickly after leaving the abusive situation the victim must seek shelter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It does refer to providing services to a victim “fleeing” domestic violence, so it might be argued that a victim who has been on the streets for a time but is still living in fear of the abuser might be able to seek assistance for herself and her pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The time frames will probably require regulatory clarification if the Act does pass.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A program founded by Allie Phillips, <a href="http://alliephillips.com/saf-tprogram/" target="_blank">Sheltering Animals & Families Together<sup>TM</sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>encourages shelters to accept animals along with members of families fleeing domestic violence and provides lists of shelters that accept pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-jY30l94k1bUM_xSWEK4gBeAB8FB2BYSviI6tIInSS6IQYy4Ml_Y9uGeEpgComCRxeq6-2MUU50BaA8dv47KMXuNWWgHBDA4mqTryd-c10UGe2tTgSmF8y5F1iBmo8bsF6xVLMl3w6f8/s1600/homeless+dog+NYC.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-jY30l94k1bUM_xSWEK4gBeAB8FB2BYSviI6tIInSS6IQYy4Ml_Y9uGeEpgComCRxeq6-2MUU50BaA8dv47KMXuNWWgHBDA4mqTryd-c10UGe2tTgSmF8y5F1iBmo8bsF6xVLMl3w6f8/s400/homeless+dog+NYC.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Homeless Person with Dog in New York City, April 2016 (courtesy R. Keats)</td></tr>
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<b>Shelters for Homeless People</b></div>
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Singer et al. (1995) found that most participants in a survey had been refused housing because they had pets (though the authors acknowledged that the refusals were sometimes for legitimate reasons).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With limited exceptions described below, most homeless shelters will not accept animals. This raises health issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem (2012) notes that young homeless people have reported that their health has been affected by having to sleep outside in inclement weather because of refusal to be separated from their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Singer et al. surveyed 35 men and 31 women who visited a veterinary clinic serving homeless pet owners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>93.3% of men and 96.4% of women said that housing would not be acceptable if they could not bring their pets with them. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>61% of men and 33% of women said they would be willing to live anywhere pets were allowed except a shelter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Particularly uninterested in going into shelters were chronically homeless men (men who had been homeless more than six months), perhaps as a result of negative experiences with shelters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al. (2013) found that the exclusion of pets from shelters may hit homeless women more than homeless men in that “homeless women are more likely to seek shelter or housing due to their vulnerability on the street.”</div>
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Under 42 U.S.C. 12181(7), a public accommodation includes a “<i>homeless shelter</i>, food bank, adoption agency, or other social service center establishment…” (See also 28 CFR 36.406(d).)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This means that homeless shelters are covered by the Americans with Disabilities Act and should be required to accept service animals as defined under 28 CFR 36.104. Although not common, I have been advised of some veterans who have service dogs, primarily for PTSD, who have had difficulties obtaining access to shelters even with highly trained service dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Part of the problem may be that, at least in some areas, homeless people with pets have been obtaining service dog paraphernalia for their pets in order to increase the access of the animals and such bogus service animals have been causing problems in shelters as they have in other places of public accommodation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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In San Francisco, an individual with a licensed dog and a doctor’s letter stating the individual has a disability, and needs a dog as a service/support animal, can register the dog with the San Francisco Department of Animal Care and Control and obtain service dog tags (also called <a href="http://www.pawssf.org/document.doc?id=120" target="_blank">California Assistance Dog tags</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The applicant must have had the dog for at least 30 days, and must sign an affidavit confirming that he or she is disabled “and that your dog is trained to assist you.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no charge for the tags.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A webpage<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of the organization PAWS (<a href="http://www.pawssf.org/page.aspx?pid=654" target="_blank">Pets Are Wonderful Support</a>) devoted to the procedures of obtaining and benefits of having these tags explains that they entitle the holder to bring the service or support animal “of any species” into, among other places, “public health clinics, case management or mental health services, [p]ublic or private housing, including SROs, <i>homeless shelters</i> and residential treatment programs funded by or contracted with the City.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Irvine in her book (p. 78) states that the “majority of guardians in San Francisco had such tags for their dogs, and one had them for her cat.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although I favor some of the results of this program as to shelters and housing, I believe its benefits are best kept in San Francisco as it is clear that under federal perspectives on service and probably even emotional support animals, many of the tags are being issued to individuals without legitimate service or assistance dogs. (I have dealt with this issue many times in this blog, such as with regard to <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2012/07/airlines-get-more-tools-to-stop-bogus.html" target="_blank">airline access </a>) </div>
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The obligation of a homeless shelter system becomes more complicated if the animal is not a service animal but does provide emotional support to an individual with a handicap under 42 U.S.C. 3604(c).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This requires determination of whether a shelter can be considered a dwelling unit under 24 CFR 100.201, which states:</div>
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<i>Dwelling unit</i> means a single unit of residence for a family or one or more persons. Examples of dwelling units include: a single family home; an apartment unit within an apartment building; and in other types of dwellings in which sleeping accommodations are provided but toileting or cooking facilities are shared by occupants of more than one room or portion of the dwelling, rooms in which people sleep. Examples of the latter include dormitory rooms <i>and sleeping accommodations in shelters intended for occupancy as a residence for homeless persons</i>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The application of the Fair Housing Act to homeless shelters is not a matter of settled law, however, as courts have split on whether specific temporary shelters fit within the Act’s definition of dwelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <i>Community House, Inc. V. City of Boise</i>, Idaho, 490 F.3d 1041 (9<sup>th</sup> Cir. 2007), a facility that provides more than transient housing, including “transitional housing units in which tenants reside for up to a year and a half,” was, at least as to this part of the facility, a dwelling under 42 U.S.C. 3602(b).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>See also <i>Woods v. Foster</i>, 884 F.Supp. 1169 (D. Ill. 1995), finding a facility where guests were allowed to stay up to 120 days was a dwelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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In contrast, <i>Intermountain Fair Housing v. Boise Rescue Mission</i>, 717 F.Supp.2d 1101 (D. Idaho 2010), affirmed on other grounds, 657 F.3d 988 (9<sup>th</sup> Cir. 2011), concerned a facility where guests have to check in on a daily basis between 4:00 and 5:30 p.m. and remain in an outdoor waiting area until 6:00 p.m., are not guaranteed the same bed each night, are not allowed to leave the shelter during the night once they enter it, but are required to leave by 8 a.m.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Guest sleeping areas are in dormitory-style rooms shared with many guests….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This facility is not a dwelling, according to the Idaho federal district court, but is rather a “place of temporary sojourn or transient visit.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The decision observed: </div>
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The Court is not convinced that a homeless shelter is a "dwelling" simply because the guests have "nowhere else to `return to,'" … because, under that interpretation of "dwelling," <i>any</i> building or structure in which a homeless person is sleeping and storing his or her possessions would be considered a "dwelling" based simply on the intent and circumstances of the homeless person.</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhT_gpwYo23FfVJmzc7vxKOGW29P_xloP0_Cl4jTbg1T63uyYiY3OmIx_RxzfeZ9vZFF-2pR-mqMkiqrQcY0UAJITFlsdWlPlsKvUb5K2lP-5kQmaO9g858mtvMR_X2nv1ui5Fy2ejyAVY/s1600/Bologna+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhT_gpwYo23FfVJmzc7vxKOGW29P_xloP0_Cl4jTbg1T63uyYiY3OmIx_RxzfeZ9vZFF-2pR-mqMkiqrQcY0UAJITFlsdWlPlsKvUb5K2lP-5kQmaO9g858mtvMR_X2nv1ui5Fy2ejyAVY/s400/Bologna+2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via dell' Independenzia, Bologna, October 2014</td></tr>
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Karen Wong (2009) has argued that “shelters should typically not be classified as dwellings under the Fair Housing Act.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, they “should be treated as public accommodations subject to the more lenient restrictions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the present discussion, this would mean that the more typical type of homeless shelter described in <i>Intermountain Fair Housing</i> would be required to accept a service dog but not an emotional support animal. See also the excellent discussion of Katherine R. Powers (<a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/dogs-dorms-how-united-states-v-university-nebraska-kearney-illustrates-coverage-gap-created" target="_blank">2014</a>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, considering the dwelling question with regard to a college dormitory but analyzing the history of the concept of dwelling in a range of residential arrangements (drug treatment facilities, halfway houses, migrant worker housing), particularly focusing on the length of residence issue as often determinative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A legislative initiative in Hawaii in 2011, designed to provide funding for parks for homeless persons (<a href="http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/session2013/Bills/SB515_HD1_.HTM" target="_blank">HR 133</a>), included a provision stating that homeless persons would be permitted to bring into a park “a limited amount of possessions <i>and a maximum of one pet as appropriate</i>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although the legislation eventually passed, the pet reference was deleted before enactment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rule would have excluded many homeless people who have more than one pet. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recently, a transitional shelter on Sand Island for homeless people on Oahu was made pet-friendly by Mayor Kirk Caldwell of Honolulu.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The decision has been controversial, and has been followed by the local press (see <a href="http://www.staradvertiser.com/editorialspremium/20151101_pets_of_homeless_will_receive_proper_care.html?id=339152802" target="_blank">letter from Pamela Burns, President of the Hawaiian Humane Society</a> in the Star Advertiser, November 1, 2015, answering critics of the policy). </div>
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Some shelters do accept pets without any legislative mandate. Lem et al. (2013) note that most homeless shelters in Canada have no-pet policies, but some will accept pets “seasonally,” presumably in winter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Labrecque and Walsh (2011) found that women with companion animals in Canadian cities wanted shelters to accept pets and suggested that there be separate areas for people with pets. Loftus-Ferren, Z. (2011) describes a homeless encampment in Ventura, California, that was created as a direct response to the rules against couples and pets that exist in many homeless shelters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, Bruce (2014) notes that, despite being sympathetic, many homeless shelter services feel that with limited resources they cannot justify allocating funds for pet care despite the attachments homeless people may feel towards their animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Federal Court Requires Eureka to Let Homeless Keep Their Pets in Shelters</span></b><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The City of Eureka, California, sought to remove over 100 homeless individuals from Palco Marsh on the Eureka Waterfront.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The City sought to dismantle the homeless encampment as it violated Eureka’s anti-camping ordinance, arguing that “unfettered illegal camping along the waterfront is detrimental to the community’s safety, leads to continued environmental degradation, and negatively impacts our tourism economy.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Eureka Police Department distributed flyers entitled “Notice to Vacate” to homeless individuals in the encampment, giving them a deadline of May 2, 2016, to find another place to live.</span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The homeless community in Eureka found a champion in Peter Martin, a local lawyer who handles, according to his website, civil rights, employment, police brutality, school district misconduct, and a few other types of cases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Martin filed a complaint listing 11 homeless individuals as plaintiffs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first named plaintiff, Stacy Cobine, “lives at the Marsh in a tent covered with tarps, along with her five-year-old dog Lazarus.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nanette Dean “does not want to go to an emergency shelter that will not permit her to bring her one-year-old dog, Trixie….”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gerrianne Schulze “would like to have stable housing with her two dogs, Max and Baby Girl, but has no money to pay for it…” Sarah Hood lives in the Marsh “in a nylon tent covered with tarps with her partner Aaron and their two dogs, Bagheera and Tierney.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lynette Vera “has a dog from whom she does not wish to be separated.” Marie Anntoinette Kinder has a one-year-old dog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>John Travis also has a dog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thus, eight of the 11 named plaintiffs have dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The complaint cites a Grand Jury report, <a href="http://www.humboldtgov.org/DocumentCenter/View/6220" target="_blank">Humboldt County Homeless Veterans</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, which states that “owning a dog eliminates many housing options for the homeless veteran.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The complaint states that “[v]ery few shelter facilities accept people with dogs, even if they are service animals for people with disabilities.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eureka’s St. Vincent de Paul Society takes in the homeless but does not allow dogs or other pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The complaint alleges:</span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The EPD [Eureka Police Department] has also informed Palco Marsh residents that during the May 2 eviction, all unvaccinated, unfixed and unlicensed animals will be impounded and taken to a veterinarian for shots and alteration, and that their owners will have to pay the associated veterinary bills incurred within ten (10) days in order to reclaim their pets. If payment has not been made in full within ten (10) days, the beloved pets and service animals of the evicted Palco Marsh residents will be euthanized.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">In issuing an injunction, the federal district court imposed certain conditions before the plaintiffs could be removed from the Marsh, the one relevant for this discussion being:</span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Defendants shall permit Plaintiffs to maintain custody of all items they require for their daily lives (e.g., clothing, toiletries, books, items of sentimental importance, etc.) and wish to bring with them to their emergency shelter accommodations, as well as their pets and/or service animals (to be housed on-site at the temporary shelter at which Plaintiffs will be accommodated in accordance with shelter rules) and shall not confiscate, impound, store and/or destroy such items….</span></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Thus, the court effectively ordered Eureka either to leave the homeless in place or to allow them to bring their pets into the shelters in which the homeless will be given temporary housing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to <a href="http://madriverunion.com/opinion-exodus-from-palco-marsh/" target="_blank">local news reports</a>, the homeless were moved out of Palco Marsh on May 2 on the Eureka's schedule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sixty shelter beds for men were added to the St. Vincent de Paul dining hall, but dogs are still not accommodated there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Temporary emergency container housing was provided to 40 people in metal shipping containers, and I am advised by a representative of Mr. Martin's firm that there are about 25 dogs living with the homeless is the containers. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">It is to be noted that this was not a suit against an individual shelter and its precedential value in such a suit is probably minimal. It was, rather, a suit by a group of homeless individuals against a city, that city's police department and its chief of police, attempting to block an announced removal of the homeless plaintiffs from public property. The court approved that removal, with conditions as to where the homeless might be placed, one of which involved their pets. It may, therefore, have some precedential value in litigation against a shelter system that fails to take into consideration that homeless individuals may have pets, and that being forced to give up those pets might have detrimental effects on the individuals. </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">More information on the status of the residents can be found on the facebook page of “<a href="https://www.facebook.com/Friends-of-the-Palco-Marsh-780394938773486/" target="_blank">Friends of Palco Marsh</a>.”</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <i>Cobine v. City of Eureka</i>, <a href="http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/california/candce/4:2016cv02239/298125/24/" target="_blank">C-16-02239 JSW</a>, 2016 WL 1730084 (May 2, 2016). For pictures of some of the homeless and their pets, see the <a href="https://lostcoastoutpost.com/2015/oct/15/eureka-marshdevils-playground-homeless-photos/" target="_blank">posting</a> by Andrew Goff on Lost Coast Outpost of October 2015, as well as the <a href="http://www.times-standard.com/article/NJ/20160325/NEWS/160329924" target="_blank">article</a> by Hunter Cresswell of the Times-Standard of March 25, 2016.</span></div>
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<b>Society’s Treatment of Homeless Pets</b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiy865Dm3gohoCx71ucaO8yvTAr1ejcl2YzXxzL5prdlVAMFHppomEhr99t_GF17Eo_BgUeIjpVBGU80SOEfZR6lBCtkSCtANJoN3GEhwUDkTuLem8mxilU4cCJw0u-aHo45lV2t9mZtg/s1600/Keats+3+5-19-2016.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="365" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiy865Dm3gohoCx71ucaO8yvTAr1ejcl2YzXxzL5prdlVAMFHppomEhr99t_GF17Eo_BgUeIjpVBGU80SOEfZR6lBCtkSCtANJoN3GEhwUDkTuLem8mxilU4cCJw0u-aHo45lV2t9mZtg/s400/Keats+3+5-19-2016.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">New York City, May 2016 (courtesy R. Keats)</td></tr>
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Animal control facilities are often specifically empowered to take in homeless pets (e.g. 225 ILCS 605/2, in which Illinois specifically provides that an animal control facility is to be operated “for the purpose of impounding or harboring seized, stray, <i>homeless</i>, abandoned or unwanted dogs, cats, and other animals”; see also Kansas Statutes 47-1701).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Homelessness of animals is sometimes a statutory reason for euthanasia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Connecticut Revised Statutes 29-108g, for instance, provides:</div>
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Any agent or officer of the Connecticut Humane Society may lawfully take charge of and humanely destroy, or cause to be humanely destroyed, <i>any abandoned, lost, strayed or <a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="hit1"></a>homeless animal</i> or animal unsuitable for adoption in his charge if upon examination a licensed veterinarian certifies, in writing, or if two persons called to view the animal in the presence of an agent or officer of the society find that the animal is injured, disabled or diseased past recovery, infirm or unsuitable for adoption, or if the owner consents in writing to such destruction. In the absence of such certification or finding or redemption by the owner, the society may, after five days, humanely destroy any animal in its charge pursuant to this section. In lieu of such destruction or redemption by the owner, the society may, in its discretion and without liability, deliver such animal, after five days, to a person other than the owner. (emphasis added) </div>
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Statutory provisions regarding drugs used for euthanasia may refer to their use on homeless pets (e.g., California Business and Professions Code (Veterinary Medicine) 4827(d), permitting administering sodium pentobarbital “for euthanasia of sick, injured, <i>homeless</i>, or unwanted domestic pets or animals….”; Colorado Revised Statutes 12-42.5-118, to the same effect).</div>
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Although a homeless person having a pet arguably has a homeless pet, some degree of neglect or abandonment is doubtless required for an animal control authority to seize and destroy a pet of a homeless person. Irvine (p. 107) notes that a domiciled dog may be allowed to remain locked up at home during a quarantine period after a bite, but a homeless dog will go into the pound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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In <i>Lavan v. City of Los Angeles</i>, 693 F.3d 1022 (9<sup>th</sup> Cir. 2012), the Ninth Circuit barred the City of Los Angeles from seizing and destroying temporarily abandoned property in the Skid Row district of the city absent an immediate threat to public safety.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>LA had been seizing property temporarily left on public sidewalks while the homeless individuals who brought to suit “attended to necessary tasks such as eating, showering, and using restrooms.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such temporary abandonments, according to the City’s attorneys, violated an LA ordinance (LAMC 56.11) stating that no “person shall leave or permit to remain any merchandise, baggage or any article of personal property upon any parkway or sidewalk.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both the district and circuit courts noted that the City’s interpretation of the ordinance would have the effect that “the government could seize and destroy any illegally parked car or <i>unlawfully unattended dog</i> without implicating the Fourth Amendment.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The homeless are well aware of the risk of leaving pets for even short periods of time and do their best to develop relationships with others who can watch over the animals when they have to obtain food or services for themselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are a few kennels that allow homeless people to board their pets for short periods free of charge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://sacloaves.org/home-page/annekes-haven-new-kennel-for-homeless-animals" target="_blank">Loaves and Fishes</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, a shelter for the homeless in Sacramento, provides day-time kennels where pets can be left, though owners are expected to walk their dogs twice a day and clean the kennel at day’s end (Irvine, p. 79).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such arrangements sometimes allow the homeless to obtain employment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lem et al. (2013) note that some homeless people have said they could not take jobs because they would not be able to take care of their animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rhoades et al. (2014) found that homeless youth with pets in the Los Angeles area had lower rates of using housing and employment services:</div>
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Only 36.5% of pet owners had utilized housing services in the past month, compared to 52.4% of non-pet owners; the disparity was similar for utilizing services to help with finding a job, at 37.3% among pet owners, and 56.3% of non-pet owners.</div>
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The authors state that their “findings support prior research and suggestions that agencies serving homeless persons should explore how pets can be accommodated by their programs.”</div>
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<b>Calls for Changing Perspective and Policy</b></div>
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Irvine (2012, p. 168) argues that there is a—</div>
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need to recognize the relationships that exist between homeless people and their companion animals. Animals matter for many homeless people, and if as much as a quarter of the homeless population in some areas have pets, service providers and policymakers need to acknowledge this. </div>
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Gaetz et al. (2013) state: </div>
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[S]ocial service agencies need to change their policies to allow dogs to accompany women. Travelling with a dog can offer a considerable degree of protection but it can also serve to isolate a woman who is unwilling to leave her dog unattended outside an agency. Offering women the opportunity to bring a dog inside shelters, drop-in centres, and other agencies could increase the chances that women will use these services, especially in the evening. This small initiative could go a long way to improving safety for women on the street.</div>
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Lem et al. (2013) argue that pet-friendly sheltering services are needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Programs could consider allowing well-behaved companion animals into services with their owners, or providing accommodation in a safe place while their owners access services. Agencies could consider a kennel or companion animal boarding area in the design plans for new facilities. Incorporating animals into shelter services can provide significant benefits to the residents.</div>
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Singer et al. (1995) concluded that their study points “to the value of considering the homeless person and the animal as a unit and working to create a responsible living situation for these human-animal pairs.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, Kim and Newton (2014), writing about homeless youth, state that “in light of the fact that youth care deeply about their animals, providing for the integrated needs of a human-animal family should also be considered.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Flynn (2000), though speaking specifically about battered women and their pets, emphasizes that it is “important that cross-training and cross-referrals occur between animal protection personnel and social service agency professionals.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This recommendation should be taken to heart by all agencies seeking to help the homeless and their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Legal recognition of the importance of the human-animal bond, such as is found in the legislation regarding rescuing pets enacted after Hurricane Katrina (where, as noted by Kim and Newton (2014), 15,000 abandoned animals were rescue and no one knows how many died), needs to be extended to the homeless and their pets because, far too often, individuals who are homeless will be offered shelter but only if they accept that their animals cannot remain with them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, no national movement is likely to lead to the pressure that changed pet-rescue policies after Katrina because the homeless are not a potent political force and there are a number of mistaken beliefs about the homeless and their pets including that the homeless are using the pets to get sympathy and money, that the pets are suffering because they are forced to be homeless along with their masters, and that the homeless cannot care for themselves much less for their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is true, of course, that until recently I shared some of these perspectives myself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>My Recommendations </b></div>
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In order to limit the loss of pets by the homeless and to recognize the need to keep the homeless and their pets together where possible, I make the following recommendations:</div>
<ol>
<li>Require that shelter systems allocate 10% of shelter spaces for homeless individuals with pets, allowing for the possibility that some of the homeless will have more than one pet. Some shelters should be available for couples, who may of course have a pet together. Employees of shelters would require some training, particularly if pets must be segregated from owners because of structural or legal reasons.</li>
<li>Require that housing providers who receive subsidies for renting apartments to the homeless designate at least 10% of such units as pet-friendly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, require that governmental entities providing subsidies verify that 10% of subsidies provided for housing the homeless be used for units that will accept pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Some auditing would be required to assure that people with pets are not being excluded and also to determine if, as may happen with some HUD-funded housing, drug dealers are not using units to house dogs they use for protection or for dog fighting. </span></li>
<li>Require that agencies providing social services to the homeless, such as health and counseling services, allow pets on the premises to the extent possible under state law, or provide temporary kennels or other supervision for pets while the owners are receiving services. State laws in this regard should be revisited to determine if animal entry restrictions for agencies providing social services are necessary for health or other reasons.</li>
<li>Require that animal control officers and facilities identify pets of the homeless where possible and treat such pets in the same manner that lost pets are treated where their owners are domiciled. Before scheduling a dog or cat for euthanasia, where the animal has been licensed but no domicile for the owner has been established, an affidavit should be signed and filed stating that notification was provided to a central local service provider for the homeless. I am aware that there will be resistance from shelters, where decisions are often made quickly to euthanize because a determination is made that an animal has no potential value. </li>
<li>Identify on a state-wide or regional basis a public or private agency to serve as a clearinghouse that can be used by homeless individuals to find pets that have been identified by animal shelters and animal control facilities as owned or licensed but as to which no domicile of an owner or licensee has been identified.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Preferably information should be made available electronically.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Remove “homeless” as a justification for euthanasia of pets from state and local laws; alternatively specify that homeless in this context means that the animal does not have an owner and that an owner can be a homeless individual.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Require cooperation between public and private entities providing temporary and longer-term shelter and housing for the homeless and animal control organizations and facilities to develop local policies and practices designed to keep the homeless from losing their pets while receiving services or obtaining shelter. A concerted effort should be made to leverage resources made available under the Pets Evacuation and Transportation Standards Act, the Pet and Women Safety Act (if it passes), and shelter systems for the homeless. </li>
<li>Provide funding from public or private sources for kennels that would allow homeless individuals with employment to leave pets in kennels during work periods, perhaps requiring that the owners regularly walk dogs and pick them up before a certain time in the afternoon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>The Department of Housing and Urban Development should be required to include statistics on the number of pets with the homeless in its annual report to Congress regarding the homeless.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>State agencies serving the homeless should maintain such statistics as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Objectives here should include developing a more accurate understanding of which areas in the country show significant variations in the number of homeless with pets and whether the recognition of the need to provide social and shelter services to the homeless in certain cities, such as San Francisco, serves as a magnet for the homeless with pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Resources for research on the homeless should be devoted to determining whether having pets has an effect on levels of addiction, symptoms of mental illness, suicide, and other parameters that might demonstrate if and where resources should be allocated to assure that the homeless and their pets will not be separated where this can be avoided.</li>
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I do not like making pie-in-the-sky proposals for social change or governmental policy and I hope that these recommendations will not be perceived in that category.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I am well aware that these recommendations can be improved upon, and I would appreciate suggestions for doing so. </div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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As an undergraduate majoring in zoology at Berkeley, I was required to take several courses outside my major, the university’s effort to assure that it was turning out well-rounded scientists with at least a minimal appreciation of the liberal arts and other cultural aspects of the broader society in which we were expected to find a place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether I learned enough from the sociology course to justify the university’s ambitions for me in this regard I can no longer say, but I do remember writing a paper about poverty and living on the edges of society for the class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I did not keep a copy of this paper, though I am sure it was filled with the leftist rhetoric I was fond of spouting at the time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What I do remember are two of the books that I read in writing it, which were <i>Skid Row as a Way of Life</i>, by Samuel E. Wallace, part of Harper & Row’s wonderful Torchbook series, and <i>Subways are for Sleeping</i>, by Edmund G. Love (later adapted into a musical). I kept both books with me through many moves and was saddened to find I no longer have them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wallace in particular was a mind-changing experience and I would like to be able smell the yellowed pages, aged by years of rather transient living as a student around Berkeley and Oakland when Scott speakers and a Marantz amplifier were my most prized possessions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I would put Irvine’s <i>My Dog Always Eats First</i> in the same category with Wallace and Love, a book that can broaden understanding and change perspectives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHV9ccDyOiOnMKfyHMKm13jaWVAMxgnXxE88Ewd_agrEyG5lxx7s4cf_eZLcPlO964xp02voC-fmJvisjkKgiCAE6Bnni4xf53zMSFCh4lnBNADpqzX9CYF_c9h79Pjl9I0IDgXSix0wM/s1600/Bologna+5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHV9ccDyOiOnMKfyHMKm13jaWVAMxgnXxE88Ewd_agrEyG5lxx7s4cf_eZLcPlO964xp02voC-fmJvisjkKgiCAE6Bnni4xf53zMSFCh4lnBNADpqzX9CYF_c9h79Pjl9I0IDgXSix0wM/s400/Bologna+5.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via dell' Independza, Bologna, October 2014</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In the year before a presidential election, both Republican and Democratic candidates are expressing sympathy for the struggling middle and working classes, and for those who have lost their jobs or been required to take marginal employment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of the accounts of the sociologists who have done research on the homeless mention people who lost their homes when the housing bubble burst and their mortgages became unaffordable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, when someone loses a job and the safety nets run out, he or she may end up on the streets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were sympathetic stories some years ago of families taking their pets to pounds so as to reduce expenses and hopefully keep a house.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were even stories of such pets being euthanized in the ordinary course of the operation of the pound.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were, on the other hand, families that went onto the street rather than give up their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those families also deserve our sympathy, and perhaps even our respect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet the tolerance of presidential aspirants often runs out when it comes to those who are reduced to begging and accepting the most limited of social services.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They are seen as social parasites (Newton 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Admittedly there are drug addicts, alcoholics, people who will not take jobs they believe are beneath them, people who are more responsible for their condition than they are willing to admit and who will do less to right their ships than they should.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, we should all realize that for many of the homeless, the difference between them and us is little more than a matter of initial circumstances and the winds of fate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There but for the grace of God go we.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There but for the grace of God go our pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thanks to Gavin Thornton of the <a href="http://hiappleseed.org/" target="_blank">Hawaii Appleseed Center for Law & Economic Justice</a> for clarifying the status of Hawaiian legislation and for telling me about the Sand Island shelter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to <a href="http://tenantstogether.org/display.php?modin=50&uid=5" target="_blank">J. Wallace Oman</a>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a friend from law school, for giving me additional perspective on housing policies and practices in San Francisco.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to L.E. Papet for helping refine the recommendations and for additional sources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to Rebecca Wisch for suggesting that I look at the issue of victims of domestic violence and their pets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><br />
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© John Ensminger 2015</div>
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<b><i>Sources:</i></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipDUTX5c1CHCx9_-3dn86rpbxWHwLEgyjGL1osPBmooFgE1CWHuXYsdXu1HxCAE7tUfcEPolj6w0VFNsEZQeTVIWVCM9TwuXt5qzIphxD6o_3Jk2NN52lLLVSxU4QN2HWm4MDGl1YqGiI/s1600/HUD+map+of+homeless+families+by+state.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="337" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipDUTX5c1CHCx9_-3dn86rpbxWHwLEgyjGL1osPBmooFgE1CWHuXYsdXu1HxCAE7tUfcEPolj6w0VFNsEZQeTVIWVCM9TwuXt5qzIphxD6o_3Jk2NN52lLLVSxU4QN2HWm4MDGl1YqGiI/s640/HUD+map+of+homeless+families+by+state.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Homeless Families by State (HUD 2014)</td></tr>
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<ol>
<li>Ascione, F.R., Weber, C.V., and Wood, D.S. (1997).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Abuse of Animals and Domestic Violence: A National Survey of Shelters for Women Who Are Battered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Society & Animals, 5(3)</i>, 205-218.</li>
<li>Baker, O.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(2001).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Dog’s Life: Homeless People and Their Pets. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Blue Cross.</li>
<li>Bender, K., Thompson, S.J., McManus, H., Lantry, J., and Flynn, P.M. (2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Capacity for Survival: Exploring Strengths of Homeless Street Youth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2776751/" target="_blank"><i>Child Youth Care Forum, 36(1)</i>, 25-42</a>. </li>
<li>Bruce, L.J. (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://scholarworks.umt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5262&context=etd" target="_blank">Pet Advocate Program for the Homeless in Missoula, MT</a> (MA thesis, University of Montana).</li>
<li>Bukowski, K., and Buetow, S. (2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21227559" target="_blank">Making the Invisible Visible: A Photovoice Exploration of Homeless Women’s Health and Lives in Central Auckland</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Social Science & Medicine</i>, <i>72(5)</i>, 739-746. </li>
<li>Cronley, C., Strand, E.B., Patterson, D.A., and Gwaltney, S. (2009). Homeless People Who Are Animal Caretakers: A Comparative Study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Psychological Reports, 105(2)</i>, 481-499. </li>
<li>Diverio, S., Boccini, B., Menchetti, L., and Bennett, P.C. (2016). The Italian Perception of the Ideal Companion Dog. <a href="http://www.journalvetbehavior.com/article/S1558-7878%2816%2900020-4/abstract" target="_blank"><i>Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research</i></a>, accepted January 2016 (noting that disparities between expectations as to what an ideal companion dog should be and what a dog actually is may explain why some dogs are abandoned to shelters in Italy). </li>
<li>Ellingsen, K., Zanella, A.J., Bjerkas, E., and Indrebo, A. (2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Relationship Between Empathy, Perception of Pain and Attitudes Toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anthrozoos, 23(3), 231-243 (noting variations in cultural attitudes towards dogs and empathy for their pain).</li>
<li>Fitzgerald, A.J. (2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“They Gave Me a Reason to Live”: The Protective Effects of Companion Animals on Suicidability of Abused Women.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Humanity & Society, 31(4)</i>, 355-378.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Flynn, C.P. (2000).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.academia.edu/4964538/Womans_Best_Friend_Pet_Abuse_and_the_Role_of_Companion_Animals_in_the_Lives_of_Battered_Women" target="_blank">Women’s Best Friend: Pet Abuse and the Role of Companion Animals in the Lives of Battered Women</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Violence Against Women, 6(2)</i>, 162-177 (46.5% of women at intake reported that their batterers had threatened to harm or actually harmed their pets)</li>
<li>Fosburg, L.B., and Dennis, D.L. (1998).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Practical Lessons: The 1998 National Symposium on Homeless Research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://archive.org/stream/practicallessons00usde/practicallessons00usde_djvu.txt" target="_blank">Proceedings: Arlington, Va. </a>(noting that dogs can help outreach workers in trying to talk to some homeless people).</li>
<li>Gaetz, S., O’Grady, B., Buccieri, K., Karabanow, J., and Marsolais, A. (2013).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Youth Homelessness in Canada: Implications for Policy and Practice</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Canadian Homelessness Research Network: the homeless hub.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Garcia, P. (2015). Homeless People in Turlock: Their Needs and Experiences (MA thesis) (describing people entering a shelter having to leave their pets and carts “outside the gate.”).</li>
<li>Government Accountability Office, GAO-12-491 (May 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Homelessness: Fragmentation and Overlap in Programs Highlight the Need to Identify, Assess, and Reduce Inefficiencies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Hughes, J.R., Clark, S.E., Wood, W., Cakmak, S., Cox, A., MacInnis, M., Warren, B., Handrahan, E., and Broom, B. (2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Youth Homelessness: The Relationships among Mental Health, Hope, and Service Satisfaction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(4)</i>, 274-283.</li>
<li>Hulchanski, J.D., Campsie, P., Chau, S.B.Y., Hwang, S.W., and Paradis, E. (2009) Finding Home: Policy Options for Addressing Homelessness in Canada (<a href="http://www.homelesshub.ca/FindingHome" target="_blank">e-book</a>). </li>
<li>Huss, R.J. (2007)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rescue Me: Legislating Cooperation Between Animal Control Authorities and Rescue Organizations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Connecticut Law Review, 39</i>, 2059.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Irvine, L. (2009). <i>Filling the Ark: Animal Welfare in Disasters</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Philadelphia: Temple University Press.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Irvine, L. (2012). <i>My Dog Always Eats First: Homeless People & Their Animals</i>. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.</li>
<li>Irvine, L. (2013). Animals as Lifechangers and Lifesavers: Pets in the Redemption Narratives of Homeless People.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 42(1)</i>, 3-30.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Irvine, L., Kahl, K.N., and Smith, J.M. (2012). Confrontation and Donations: Encounters Between Homeless Pet Owners and the Public.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>The Sociological Quarterly, 53(1)</i>, 25-43.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Jones, R.C. (2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Including Pets in Domestic Violence Protective Orders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>McGeorge Law Review, 39</i>, 469.</li>
<li>Kidd, A.H., and Kidd, R.M. (1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Benefits and Liabilities of Pets for the Homeless.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Psychological Reports, 74</i>, 715-722.</li>
<li>Kim, C.H., and Newton, E.K. (2014). My Dog is My Home: Increasing Awareness of Inter-Species Homelessness in Theory and Practice, 48-63 in <i>Animals in Social Work: Why and How They Matter </i>(Ryan, T., ed.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New York: Palgrave MacMillan</li>
<li>Kirst, M., Zerger, S., Harris, D.W., Plenert, E., and Stergiopoulos, V. (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Promise of Recovery: Narratives of Hope among Homeless Individuals with Mental Illness Participating in a Housing First Randomised Controlled Trial in Toronto, Canada.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>BMJ Open 2014(4)</i>, e004379 (some homeless expressed a desire to get a pet once they had housing). </li>
<li>Labrecque, J., and Walsh, C. (2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Homeless Women’s Voices on Incorporating Companion Animals into Shelter Services.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anthrozoos, 24(1), 79-95.</li>
<li>Lem, M. (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Effects of Pet Ownership on Street-Involved Youth in Ontario (MS Thesis, University of Guelph) (“Pet ownership was also demonstrated to be significantly and negatively correlated with regular shelter use…. [P]et ownership was found to be negatively associated with depression.”). </li>
<li>Lem, M., Coe, J.B., Haley, D.B., Stone, E., and O’Grady, W. (2013).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Effects of Companion Animal Ownership among Canadian Street-involved Youth: A Qualitative Analysis. <i>Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 40(4)</i>, 285-304.</li>
<li>Lem, M., Coe, J.B., Haley, D.B., Stone, E., and O'Grady, W. (2016). The Protective Association between Pet Ownership and Depression among Street-involved Youth: A Cross Sectional Study. <i>Anthrozoos, 29(1)</i>, 123-136 ("To quantitatively investigate the association between depression and pet ownership among street-involved youth, a cross-sectional study was performed with a convenience sample of 189 street-involved youths who were surveyed in four cities in Ontario, Canada, 89 of whom were pet owners and 100 of whom were not. Logistic regression modelling found pet ownership to be negatively associated with depression in the study population (controlling for gender, regular use of drugs, and time since youth left home), with the odds of being depressed three times greater for youths who did not own pets. While pet ownership among street-involved youth has many liabilities, including impairing youths’ ability to access shelter, services, and housing and employment opportunities, companion animals may offer both physical and psychosocial benefits that youth have difficult attaining."). </li>
<li>Loftus-Ferren, Z. (2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tent Cities: An Interim Solution to Homelessness and Affordable Housing Shortages in the United States.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>California Law Review, 99</i>, 1037.</li>
<li>Mader, B., Hart, L.A., and Bergin, B. (1989). Social Acknowledgments for Children with Disabilities: Effects of Service Dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Child Development,60(6)</i>, 1529.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>McNabb, M. (2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pets in the Eye of the Storm: Hurricane Katrina Floods the Courts with Pet Custody Disputes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Animal Law Review 14</i>, 71. </li>
<li>Newton, E. (2012). In a Clasped Paw and Hand: A Case Study of Homeless People and Their Pets in Portland, Oregon. <a href="http://www.animalbondstudies.org/2013/08/01/in-a-clasped-paw-and-hand-a-case-study-of-homeless-people-and-their-pets-in-portland-oregon/" target="_blank">Association for Human-Animal Bond Studies<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Nowicki, S.A. (2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Give Me Shelter: The Foreclosure Crisis and Its Effect on America’s Animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Stanford Journal of Animal Law and Policy, 4</i>, 97.</li>
<li>Petrovich, J.C., and Cronley,C.C. (2015). Deep in the Heart of Texas: A Phenomenological Exploration of Unsheltered Homelessness. <i>American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(4)</i>, 315-323 (noting lack of facilities for companion animals among "programmatic barriers to service" among homeless in Fort Worth, Texas). </li>
<li>Powers, K.R. (2014). Dogs in Dorms: How the United States v. University of Nebraska at Kearney Illustrates a Coverage Gap Created by the Intersection of Fair Housing and Disability Law. <a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/dogs-dorms-how-united-states-v-university-nebraska-kearney-illustrates-coverage-gap-created" target="_blank"><i>Creighton Law Review, 47</i>, 363</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Rankin, S., Aliment, R., and Kaya, L. (2016). <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2776427" target="_blank">No Pets Allowed: Discrimination, Homelessness, and Pet Ownership</a>. Brief of Homeless Rights Advocacy Project, Seattle University School of Law. </span></li>
<li>Rasnow, T.L. (2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Conference: Access to Justice Conference September 11, 2001: Traveling Justice: Providing Court Based Pro Se Assistance to Limited Access Communities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Fordham Urban Law Journal, 29</i>, 1281.</li>
<li>Rew, L. (2000).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Friends and Pets as Companions: Strategies for Coping with Loneliness among Homeless Youth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 13(3)</i>, 125-132.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Rew, L., and Horner, S.D. (2003).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Personal Strengths of Homeless Adolescents Living in a High-Risk Environment. <i>Advances in Nursing Science, 26(2)</i>, 90-101.</li>
<li>Rhoades, H., Winetrobe,H., and Rice, E. (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pet Ownership Among Homeless Youth: Associations with Mental Health, Service Utilization and Housing Status. <i>Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 46(2)</i>, 237-244. </li>
<li>Singer, R.S., Hart, L.A., and Zasloff, R.L.(1995).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dilemmas Associated with Rehousing Homeless People Who Have Companion Animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Psychological Reports, 77</i>, 851-857.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Slatter, J., Lloyd, C., and King, R. (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Homelessness and Companion Animals: More than Just a Pet? <i>British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 75(8)</i>, 377-383 (finding pet ownership to be “a valued occupation,” to which occupational therapists should pay more attention). </li>
<li>Taylor, H., Williams, P., and Gray, D. (2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Homelessness and Dog Ownership: An Investigation into Animal Empathy, Attachment, Crime, Drug Use, Health and Public Opinion<i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anthrozoos, 17(4)</i>, 353-368. </li>
<li>Thompson, K., Every, D., Rainbird, S., Cornell, V., Smith, B., and Trigg, J. (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No Pet or Their Person Left Behind: Increasing the Disaster Resilience of Vulnerable Groups through Animal Attachment, Activities and Networks<i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Animals, 4</i>, 214-240.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Thompson, S.J., McManus, H., Lantry, J., Windsor, L., and Flynn, P. (2006).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Insights from the Street: Perceptions of Services and Providers by Homeless Young Adults.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Evaluation and Program Planning, 29</i>, 34-43 ("I sit there and have conversations with her [dog]--she's actually the only thing that kept me sane on the road.").<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Trigg, J., Thompson, K., Smith, B., and Bennett, P. (2016). An Animal Just Like Me: The Importance of Preserving the Identities of Companion-Animal Owners in Disaster Contexts. <i>Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(1)</i>, 26-40 ("We argue for the importance of acknowledging the powerful intersubjectivity inherent to pet keeping, the inseparability of perceived pet identity from owners’ experiences of the self and that preserving the cohesion of the two is an essential consideration for owners’ psychological wellbeing when managing the integrated pet/owner in the face of risks posed by disaster and other hazards."). </span></li>
<li>U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development: Office of Community Planning and Development (October 2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2014-AHAR-Part1.pdf" target="_blank"><i>The 2014 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress</i></a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Wallace, S.E. (1965). <i>Skid Row as a Way of Life</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New York: Harper & Row.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Williams, D.L., and Hogg, S. (2016). The Health and Welfare of Dogs Belonging to Homeless People. <i>Pet Behaviour Science, 1</i>, 21-30 ("The key findings demonstrated that dogs belonging to the homeless are not significantly less healthy than those belonging to non-homeless individuals. They have lower body condition scores, but this is because the non-homeless dog<br />population tends towards being overweight or obese. They also appear to have fewer behavioural problems."). </span></li>
<li>Wisch, R.F. (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Domestic Violence and Pets: List of States that Include Pets in Protective Orders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/domestic-violence-and-pets-list-states-include-pets-protection-orders" target="_blank">Animal Legal & Historical Center, Michigan State University College of Law</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
<li>Woelfer, J.P., and Hendry, D.G. (2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Stabilizing Homeless Young People with Information and Place. <i>Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(11)</i>, 2300-2312. </li>
<li>Wong, K. (2009). Comment, Narrowing the Definition of “Dwelling” Under thforthe Fair Housing Act, <i>UCLA Law Review 56</i>, 1867.</li>
<li>Woods, D.R., and Komorosky, D. (2013).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Animal Companion Placement and Management Challenges in California Domestic Violence Shelters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>National Social Science Proceedings, 53</i>, 154-159.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Batterers use this bond as a way to manipulate the control their victims through threats or actual harm done to companion animals. The concern for companion animals becoming victims of violent relationships is highlighted by the increased numbers of states placing pets on protection orders [citing Wisch].)</li>
<li>Zimolag, U., and Krupa, T. (2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pet Ownership as a Meaningful Community Occupation for People with Serious Mental Illness. <i>American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63</i>, 126-137 (discussing the effects of companion animals on “community integration” of individuals with severe mental illness noting that occupational therapists can become involved in “teaching and advocacy related to the rights and responsibilities of being a pet owner in rental housing, and collaborating with housing agencies and veterinarians to develop creative pet solutions”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></li>
</ol>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-44928285409076166872015-11-02T05:48:00.002-05:002015-11-02T05:48:46.120-05:00Updated Report on Facility Dogs Helping Victims Testify about Abuse<div class="MsoNormal">
In the last year, more courts have allowed dogs to be in the witness box while children testify about abuse, often with the abuser only feet away.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Several states have recently enacted legislation to permit children and vulnerable witnesses to be accompanied by such dogs on the stand, and other states are considering such laws.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While I believe this is generally a positive use of dogs in the courtroom, I see two troubling trends. The first are state laws and legislative proposals that restrict this work to dogs trained or tested by specific service or therapy dog organizations, despite the fact that many of the dogs judges have allowed in their courtrooms would not meet such criteria but worked very well for the purpose anyway.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> There is a desire among some groups to establish a guild of facility dog trainers and handlers that would in effect create a monopoly on this work. </span>The second trend I find of grave concern, as someone who once worked in the Department of the Public Advocate in New Jersey, is the obvious lack of preparation demonstrated by defense counsel as to the potential bias involved in a number of the prosecutions that have led to convictions where facility dogs were accepted by trial judges.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These developments, and my concerns, are described in an article that I have been updating since 2012 on the website of the Animal Legal & Historical Center of the Michigan State University College of Law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank">Cases and Statutes on the Use of Dogs by Witnesses While Testifying in Criminal Proceedings:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Periodically Updated Online Article, by John Ensminger (October 2015)</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><a href="https://www.animallaw.info/article/recent-cases-use-facility-dogs-witnesses-while-testifying" target="_blank"> </a> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-72919769569133828742015-10-21T06:02:00.000-04:002015-10-22T07:17:08.492-04:00Western Range Operations Get Labor Department Approval to Continue to Import Foreign Temporary (H-2A) Workers Skilled in Managing Herding and Guarding Dogs <div class="MsoNormal">
Employment issues arise occasionally among those who train and use dogs for professional purposes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most common example in my experience concerns the pay of law enforcement personnel who care for dogs trained in narcotics and explosives detection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Compensation issues particularly arise when the dogs live with the officers as members of their families.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Some departments regard providing compensation for such activities as prohibitively expensive, or at least a factor to consider in deciding whether to implement or discontinue a detection dog program.</div>
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One work environment where the use of trained dogs is not going to decline because of compensation levels for their handlers concerns temporary foreign non-immigrant (H-2A) workers who are brought into the U.S. to work as shepherds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These workers, who are found on large ranching operations primarily in the western United States, will continue to be brought into the country, primarily from Peru, because of efforts made by segments of the livestock industry to assure that the Department of Labor recognizes that cutting off the importation of shepherds as temporary employees could end large-scale sheep and wool production in much of the country.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Temporary Employment for Non-Immigrants in Herding Occupations </b></div>
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On October 16, the Department of Labor issued final regulations regarding the temporary or seasonal employment of agricultural workers under the H-2A program (Temporary Agricultural Employment of H-2A Foreign Workers in the Herding and Production of Livestock on the Range in the United States, RIN 1205-AB70, <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-04-15/pdf/2015-08505.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 62958, October 16, 2015</a>). The regulations establish standards and procedures for employers to hire foreign temporary agricultural workers for jobs in herding and production of livestock on the range.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Range” is specifically defined:</div>
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The range is any area located away from the ranch headquarters used by the employer. The following factors are indicative of the range: it involves land that is uncultivated; it involves wide expanses of land, such as thousands of acres; it is located in a remote, isolated area; and typically range housing is required so that the herder can be in constant attendance to the herd. No one factor is controlling and the totality of the circumstances is considered in determining what should be considered range. The range does not include feedlots, corrals, or any area where the stock involved would be near ranch headquarters. 20 CFR 655.201</div>
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One example of ranch work “closely and directly related” to agricultural production involves “feeding and caring for the dogs that the workers use on the range to assist with herding or <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2014/07/guarding-sheep-risks-of-ancient.html" target="_blank">guarding the flock</a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" target="_blank"></a>.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>20 CFR 655.201.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The regulations only mention dogs in one other context, stating that on the range temporary workers may be required to use non-potable water for laundry and bathing if the water is clean and safe for such purposes, but if runoff water is used to water the herd, dogs, or horses, precautionary measures must be taken to prevent contamination if the laundry or bathing water might be collected from areas where animals excrete.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>20 CFR 655.235(b)(2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>More specifically, under 20 CFR 655.235(b)(3), the “water provided for use by the workers may not be used to water dogs, horses, or the herd.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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There is no other mention of dogs in the regulatory text, though there are a number of explanatory references in the preamble.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What is perhaps most interesting about the regulatory release is that when proposed rules were published in the Federal Register only months before on April 15 (<a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-04-15/pdf/2015-08505.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 20300</a>), there was no mention of dogs in either the preamble or the text of the proposed rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fact that dogs receive attention now is due entirely to comments received by the Department after issuance of the proposal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Comments were originally due by May 15 (only one month from publication of the proposal in the Federal Register), but this was extended because of the number of comments that were being submitted, to June 1, 2015.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>DOL got 511 comments in all, 505 of which it <a href="http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D=ETA-2015-0004" target="_blank">published on the regulations.gov website</a>, with 39 of these referring to dogs (some because domestic dogs can be predators of sheep, but mostly because of guarding and herding functions that might be performed on the range when the dogs are deployed with temporary workers).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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(The H-2A program goes back to legislation President Reagan signed, the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. Regulations were issued under the Act, but as to herding occupations the Department of Labor relied on two guidance letters concerning (1) employers engaged in sheepherding and goatherding occupations (<a href="http://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL/TEGL32-10ACC.pdf" target="_blank">Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 32-10</a>), and (2) open range production of livestock (<a href="http://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/corr_doc.cfm?DOCN=3044" target="_blank">Training and Employment Guidance Letter No. 15-06</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://wdr.doleta.gov/directives/attach/TEGL/TEGL32-10ATT-A.pdf" target="_blank">Attachment A</a> to TEGL 32-10 provided that sheepherders and goatherders may “herd flocks and round up strays using trained dogs.”) </div>
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<b>Peruvians Dominate Labor Market for Shepherds</b></div>
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Mountain Plains Agricultural Service, in trenchant comments, makes it clear that domestic labor cannot supply the needs of range operations:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Dating back to World War II, sheep producers found it first difficult and later impossible to find United States workers able and willing to perform the difficult work of “range” sheepherding. In recent years, the number of U.S. born sheepherders has essentially dropped to zero. For example, in 2012, Western Range’s members sought to hire nearly 1,000 sheepherders. Out of that number, only 22 U.S. workers even applied, and only 2 met the qualifications and were hired.... One was not interested in the job and the other was hired but quit before completing his contract.</div>
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This commenter estimates that “[r]oughly 40% of all sheep in the U.S. and beef cows in the Western United States are herded by H-2A workers.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Comments submitted by Julie Stepanek Shiflett, the Mountain Plains Agricultural Service, the Western Range Association, and the American Sheep Industry Association, refer to the cost of bringing in temporary workers from other countries: </div>
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Sheep ranchers face costs that other agricultural employers hiring H2-A workers do not face. The sheep rancher must incur transport costs to hire workers with unique talents from countries as far away as Peru. Second, the sheep rancher must incur the costs to transport food to often distant and remote areas where herders work and live. The sheep rancher must also maintain housing in remote areas of our country, also incurring a significant transport cost.</div>
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Peruvians are commonly employed as temporary range workers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>David Kelly, in a <a href="https://www.sheepusa.org/IssuesPrograms_Programs_Sheepherders_PeruviansHerdButNotSeen" target="_blank">2004 article in the Los Angeles Times</a>, wrote that “ranchers across the West have come to rely almost entirely on Peruvians … to tend their sheep.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rugged South Americans have a rich herding tradition, are used to harsh weather and, more important, are willing to work for low wages in one of the nation’s least known but most demanding occupations.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A <a href="https://www.sheepusa.org/IssuesPrograms_Programs_Sheepherders_DespiteStruggleSheepRanchersSustainingAncientCalling" target="_blank">2004 article by Amyjo Brown</a> of the Associated Press explains that the same work in Peru would pay about $300 per month, and the U.S. income level allowed one worker to send his three children to school in Peru.<br />
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A <a href="http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=1754" target="_blank">2013 posting</a> on the website of the University of California at Davis<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>cites other press reports indicating that once in the U.S., some H-2A workers leave their jobs for longer contracts and better pay.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The Western Range Association said that about 10 percent of the 900 H-2A shepherds that it brought into the US did not complete their contracts.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The number of positions certified by the Department of Labor to the Western Range Association was 1,333 in the most recently posted <a href="http://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/" target="_blank">annual report (for 2013)</a> of the Office of Foreign Labor Certification.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The website of the U.S. Embassy in Peru has a webpage devoted to “<a href="http://spanish.peru.usembassy.gov/visas/no-inmigrante/tipos/h2a-trabajadores-agricolas.html" target="_blank">trabajadores agricolas temporales (H-2A)</a>,” specifically mentioning that applicants may be able to work as shepherds (<i>pastores de ovejas</i>) .<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The webpage includes directions on how to file an application (<a href="http://www.uscis.gov/es/formularios/i-129" target="_blank"><i>Formulario I-129, Petición de un trabajador no imigrante</i></a>) and contains links to other relevant documents.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Statistics posted by the <a href="http://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/h-2a.cfm" target="_blank">Office of Foreign Labor Certification</a> indicate that the five top states for importing shepherds are Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada, and Idaho. </span><br />
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<b>Life of the Shepherd on the Open Range </b></div>
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A good many of the 39 comments the Department of Labor received regarding dogs are specifically cited by the name of the commenter in the preamble to the final regulations, a practice I wish other agencies would consider.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The Treasury Department, in contrast, goes to great lengths to obfuscate the sources of comments referred to in preambles to tax regulations;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I realize this is sour grapes on my part as a former commenter on some Treasury proposals.) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some commenters said that without dogs, the losses due to predation would be so great as to put a ranch out of business.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ken Hamilton of the Wyoming Farm Bureau Federation stated that 13,600 ewes and lambs in Wyoming by predators in 2013.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Predators mentioned by this commenter include domestic dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Terrell Brock of Mountain Plains Ag Service noted that the shepherds had to keep the herd and the guard dogs away from trouble with the animals of neighbors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Some commenters provided a description of how the employees work with guard and herding dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Billie Siddoway of Driggs, Idaho, describes the use of dogs as follows:</div>
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The employee takes his dogs and horses with him out on the range. That employee will be responsible for tending the herd, keeping the sheep together, protecting the sheep from predators, and providing feed and water to the sheep. The work may involve transporting water or feed by truck to and from the base ranch. When the employee is not working with the sheep, he may work with his dogs and horses, prepare meals, launder clothing, read books or magazines, watch movies on portable electronic devices, talk on the phone, write letters, or engage in other personal activities. Once lambing is complete, another employee may join him so that there are two employees with each herd. When this happens, the employees may divide their duties so that one primarily moves the sheep and the other cares for the horses and dogs and prepares meals. During this spring grazing period, the employees move the sheep from the base ranch toward the summer range – a distance of over 100 miles.</div>
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In the fall, employees herd sheep down from the mountains. This generally occurs in mid-September. Employees assist in erecting a temporary sorting corral at the base of the mountain. The employees herd the sheep into the corral where market lambs are sorted from the rest of the herd. The market lambs are loaded into trucks and shipped to market. (The trucks are not operated by H-2A workers.) The employees herd the remaining ewes and replacement lambs to fall grazing areas. The employees once again take up residence in their mobile sheep camps and move the camps from one range to the next. The employees keep their guard dogs, herding dogs, and riding horses.</div>
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A key component of herding on our ranch is the protection of sheep from predators. Predators include wolves, bears, mountain lions, and coyotes. Employees may deter predators with guard dogs, light, noise, and motion. Fences are not an effective deterrent to predators. The term “protecting” should be added to the definition of herding.</div>
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[W]e typically provide our employees on the range with a riding horse, saddles, blankets, tack, pack horses, pack supplies, herd dogs, guard dogs, a gun, gloves, raingear, horseshoe equipment, axes, saws, hammers, nails, rope, a sleeping bag, blankets, a pillow, soap, shampoo, deodorant, detergent and mobile telephones. They may also have access to water delivery trucks and other vehicles. At the holidays, we provide clothing, which may include socks, underwear, shirts, sweaters, and winter gear.</div>
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Siddoway’s suggestion that “protecting” should be included in the definition of herding was not done, though the word does appear in the definition of “production of livestock” in 20 CFR 655.201.</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimCDytUbYbniEmp7MxUzhlyUw5_uXcABUsoHkSJaEzHx-EYXdbAhwEWl4Uw0iOqVLfHp3GaZcKKXgnSODURYLXlWuPkYCbWXtWQSo-oY2FCwFGxRqQWpk6CodcJBsn1M3UmaEyfdBoMjQ/s1600/Feliipppo+Pelizzi+landscape+with+animals+1859.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="331" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimCDytUbYbniEmp7MxUzhlyUw5_uXcABUsoHkSJaEzHx-EYXdbAhwEWl4Uw0iOqVLfHp3GaZcKKXgnSODURYLXlWuPkYCbWXtWQSo-oY2FCwFGxRqQWpk6CodcJBsn1M3UmaEyfdBoMjQ/s400/Feliipppo+Pelizzi+landscape+with+animals+1859.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Felippo Pelizzi, Landscape with Animals, 1859</td></tr>
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The Cunningham Sheep Company of Pendleton, Oregon, commented that “well-trained Border Collies and large-breed guardian dogs … watch over the sheep when the herder returns to the living quarters during the middle of the day and night.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>John Peavey of the Flat Top Sheep Co. notes that extreme dedication is sometimes demonstrated by the dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Ours are border collies and are dedicated to caring for sheep. We have had dogs stay with trapped sheep for 24 hours. Waiting without food, water or companionship for someone to return and help get the animals freed and back on water and pasture. These dogs are very special. It takes many years and countless generations to imprint these instincts. In a collapsing industry as the flocks disappear. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What's to happen to these very smart dogs. Over the years I have seen neighbors sell out and try to find a home for the border collies. This is often difficult and some have to be euthanized. Something of incredible intrinsic value is lost forever.</div>
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This highlights an uncomfortable fact about ranch life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A dog that ceases to be useful may become an expense that a marginal operation can no longer afford.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Most comments concerning guarding and herding dogs did so in the context of sheep or goat herding,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but Vermillion Ranch and Midland Livestock mentioned using herding dogs for keeping cow-calf pairs together and moving them to areas where there is sufficient forage and water.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dogs are also used “to keep range cattle in designated grazing areas in accordance with federal grazing permits.” </div>
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<b>Conclusion </b></div>
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The regulations are effective November 16, 2015.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were many issues that drew comments on the proposed regulations, particularly the wage levels for H-2A workers, which led to calls for action from many organizations and involved Congressmen and Senators in western states.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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I am not competent to judge the arguments regarding the economic impact that might have resulted had the list of responsibilities for which foreign workers may be brought into the U.S. to perform not been expanded from the April proposal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is apparent from the comments that the industry is, in many instances, quite marginal, and other forces will continue to drive sheep and wool production overseas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My father would have been depressed had he lived to see this (though I am sure it had begun, to a degree, before his death in 1998).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Sheep and Wool Science</i> was one of his earliest books, and he completed his doctoral thesis on some aspects of wool science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Still, the industry such as it is will continue for the time being, apparently thanks in large part to many men from Peru.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The painting by Felippo Pelizzi (1818-1899) hangs in a hallway in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I could not take a photograph under the museum’s rules so this is the best depiction I could find.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was apparent to me standing before it that two of the sheep are curious to know what the dog, clearly their leader, is sniffing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The museum catalogue (<i>The Pinacoteca Ambrosiana</i>, English translation by Simon Turner, De Agostini Libri, 2013) does not state where it was painted but says that mountain scenes with sheep were a common topic for the painter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Thanks to Sarah Bell and Gene Papet for comments on an earlier draft, and to Sarah Bell for additional source material.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-39412311155313862492015-09-15T06:08:00.000-04:002015-10-17T10:49:56.106-04:00Wounds Talk When People Don't: Wound Forensics Establish Recent Dogfighting Activities<div class="MsoNormal">
When police raid a dog fight in progress, they can often obtain witnesses by offering to drop or reduce charges against spectators or minor participants in exchange for testimony against the ringleaders. But what if the only evidence found consists of some scarred and injured dogs and paraphernalia commonly but not certainly associated with dogfighting enterprises? A recent case from Ohio, <a href="http://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/rod/docs/pdf/6/2015/2015-Ohio-3081.pdf" target="_blank"><i>Ohio v. Steward</i>, L-14-1083</a>, 2015 Ohio App. LEXIS 2989 (Ct.App. 2015), demonstrates how wounds on the dogs themselves can help establish that the dogs have been fighting, and may even provide a timeline for how recently they have been fighting.<b> </b><br />
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<b>Boarded Up House Filled with Pit Bulls and Dogfight Training Equipment </b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyVGKiAOOmrEnAvUnZGHFAxm47Z6KTdx29_jJFzYr-pCGU0gLlRmiESiTWRbgCKQKcdns4J5xM56XlTyGbImcNxY0usDfZa3ygWxdKDTLZ87CZzhq8-naL0Hc3-0A6BiFnQs_o-jg1eJ4/s1600/head+with+scars.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyVGKiAOOmrEnAvUnZGHFAxm47Z6KTdx29_jJFzYr-pCGU0gLlRmiESiTWRbgCKQKcdns4J5xM56XlTyGbImcNxY0usDfZa3ygWxdKDTLZ87CZzhq8-naL0Hc3-0A6BiFnQs_o-jg1eJ4/s320/head+with+scars.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dog with Head Scars (courtesy J. Lyle)</td></tr>
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Toledo police were dispatched to investigate a “suspicious person” at a partially boarded-up house on South Fearing Street in Toledo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When they entered the house they heard dogs barking and chains rattling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The officers found no person, suspicious or otherwise, but did find six dogs, each in a different room throughout the three floors of the house.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A stack of mail for Carl Steward was found on the fireplace mantle, but there were no other indications that humans were living there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather, the sole occupants of the house were, according to the court, six pit bulls. </div>
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A large kennel in the living room held a female.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kennels are sometimes used by dog fighters to protect females.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another female was in the first floor bedroom and there was one dog in each of three second floor bedrooms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The floors of the bedrooms were covered with heavy plastic and wood chips and there was an eyebolt in the center of each bedroom to which the dog was connected by a heavy gauge chain. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the basement was a male whose collar was secured to an eyehook in the ceiling, again with heavy gauge chain. Sometimes dogs in training are suspended for sustained periods to build up neck muscles through flailing after being hoisted up by use of a spring pole.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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All dogs had access to water and most to food.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dogs were seized and taken by the dog warden.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>None were aggressive towards people, though four were aggressive towards other dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Items seized in the home included:</div>
<ul>
<li>weighted dog vest</li>
<li>3 sections of cow hide</li>
<li>horse leads</li>
<li>50-ft. aerial dog run</li>
<li>dog treadmill</li>
<li>injectable penicillin</li>
<li>syringes</li>
<li>topical antibiotic ointment</li>
<li>equine dewormer</li>
<li>empty bottle of hydrogen peroxide</li>
<li>empty box for an electronic hanging scale</li>
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These items are consistent with long-term care of successful fighters and breeders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such expenses are not undertaken for an unsuccessful dog. </div>
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After the dogs had been seized, Carl Steward arrived at the dog warden’s facility and claimed ownership of the six dogs but was told that the dogs were evidence in a dogfighting investigation and that they would not be released to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He told the employee of the facility that “you can’t prove it.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Steward was indicted on six counts of dogfighting.</div>
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<b>Prosecution Evidence </b></div>
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A veterinarian employed by the dog warden testified that the female dog found in the living room (0165, to use the numbers given by the court and by us in our tabular summary below) was very thin and had old scars on her front legs that were too numerous to count.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her left rear leg had some scarring and she had fresh puncture wounds on her face and head. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first picture shows the head of one of the dogs. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The tip of her tail was bleeding.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another female dog (0163) had a “moderate skin infection” covering her entire belly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another female had a wound on her neck and half of one ear was missing while the other was ragged and torn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A fresh puncture wound at the base of one ear was in the veterinarian’s opinion only a few days old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since dogfighters usually fight male dogs, the wounds on the females may have come from mating, not fighting. Wounds to tails can come from striking the bars of a kennel. </div>
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Yet another female dog’s front leg had a recent fracture and her right paw, which was swollen, had healed with an outward rotation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This dog (0164) had old scars on her head, face, feet, and legs and fresh wounds on her nose.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A portion of her right ear was missing. Yet another female (0166) had numerous scars on her head, face, and neck and “several pieces” missing from her left ear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An injury to a leg was at least a month and a half old.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A male dog (0161) had scarring on his face, neck, back leg, forelimbs, and chest. The dog’s ears had ragged edges and recent wounds on his nose and ears.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wounds on the top of his head “were puncture wounds about the size of a tooth.” This dog, the only fully nourished dog in the group, was probably the favored fighter. The veterinarian concluded that the wounds on five of the six the dogs were consistent with those that result from dogfighting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The second picture shows some of the injuries to the ears and limbs of several of the dogs. </span>The chart shows the data provided by the appellate court regarding the dogs and their injuries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2MXlMHlnmzp4Ijng3i1K1flsEBoys79Iqwi-4n6R8lK9lueJsyqwvEGpbETtWxpyHpl5zvH_D5Mz7RlJXlPTL1iJjxzjK7EErdYROf3p6tKECcxxc51-MVB8J7xaotmzDRdAHzqqH8kM/s1600/damaged+limbs+and+ears.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2MXlMHlnmzp4Ijng3i1K1flsEBoys79Iqwi-4n6R8lK9lueJsyqwvEGpbETtWxpyHpl5zvH_D5Mz7RlJXlPTL1iJjxzjK7EErdYROf3p6tKECcxxc51-MVB8J7xaotmzDRdAHzqqH8kM/s320/damaged+limbs+and+ears.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wounds to ears and limbs (courtesy J. Lyle)</td></tr>
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Doug Allen, a Toledo police department detective, is responsible for the city’s dogfighting investigations. He also testified that the wounds were consistent with dogfighting, as were the items seized from the home.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mark Kumpf, the Chief County Dog Warden for Montgomery County, Ohio, testified that the injuries, scars, and wounds on the dogs were consistent with dogfighting and inconsistent with “natural dominance displays.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He testified that one of the females (0163) might not be a fighter but may have been kept for breeding purposes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He testified that the hanging scale was considered more accurate than a stationary scale by dogfighters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Such scales can also measure the force applied when shaking an object, a way of testing neck muscle strength.) The presence of the medicines and syringes could be explained by the reluctance of dogfighters to take dogs to veterinarians for fear of being reported to authorities. </div>
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<b>Defense Testimony</b></div>
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Carl Steward, testifying on his own behalf, said that he had acquired all the dogs in the three months prior to his arrest and that some of them had been roaming around the neighborhood and the rest were given to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He stated that he kept the dogs separated because he “did not want anything to happen when he was gone.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He used chains because he thought some of the dogs might chew their way out of crates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He said he had purchased the medications from a farm supply store and that he had purchased the treadmill to train dog 0161, the male, for treadmill races.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He used the weighted vest to help the dogs “burn off energy.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The hides he described as dog toys.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He said he did not have enough money to take the dogs to a veterinarian so had obtained the medications from a local feed store.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Steward denied the dogs ever fought while he owned them. He said he had never asked any of the people who gave him the dogs if they had been involved in dogfighting. He denied any involvement in dogfighting and said he had never even seen such a fight. He disputed the testimony that some of the wounds found on the dogs were recent. There also seems to be evidence that Steward was using the house as a breeding and training location, which might indicate that some of his income came from supplying fighting dogs to others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conviction and Appeal</b></div>
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Steward had waived his right to a jury trial. The trial judge found Steward guilty on five counts of dogfighting, but not guilty as to dog 0163 (the likely breeding female).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was sentenced to five years of community control, 100 hours of community service, and ordered to pay $12,030 to the Lucas County Dog Warden in restitution. Steward appealed, claiming the conviction was not supported by legally sufficient evidence, against the weight of the evidence, and that the restitution award was made in error. </div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpzbbkYzz1ZzXC4dvoydSeTJ1jwRw76mZUwMeLOx5YTuxFdVtZzT23KIUi8clqa-1RL8b4Ris7ojlUUpcVMb6yvJl51vUNcN1X6gooHtQgHJ4IwNxtt1SlkbjBDChwja2cgUTfcVxn0-s/s1600/chart+of+dogs+as+evaluated.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpzbbkYzz1ZzXC4dvoydSeTJ1jwRw76mZUwMeLOx5YTuxFdVtZzT23KIUi8clqa-1RL8b4Ris7ojlUUpcVMb6yvJl51vUNcN1X6gooHtQgHJ4IwNxtt1SlkbjBDChwja2cgUTfcVxn0-s/s640/chart+of+dogs+as+evaluated.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Summary of dogs and their wounds in Ohio v. Seward (LEP)</td></tr>
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The appellate court found the evidence sufficient to support appellant’s convictions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The court stated:</div>
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Each dog was kept in a separate room on three levels of a home in a manner, identified by the dogfighting expert, consistent with an urban dogfighting operation. Appellant was in possession of equipment commonly used to train dogs for dogfighting, e.g., a treadmill, animal hides, a weighted vest and numerous over-the-counter medicines and antibiotics. Both the warden's veterinarian and the dogfighting expert testified that the injuries found on five of the six dogs were indicative of recent dogfighting activities.</div>
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Thus, contrary to the defendant’s claims, the appellate court could not say that the trial court’s findings were against the weight of the evidence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, the appellate court determined that the trial judge had erred in ordering restitution in the amount of $12,030, as the dog warden was not a victim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A report in the Toledo newspaper, <a href="http://www.toledoblade.com/Courts/2013/11/20/Toledoan-sent-to-jail-for-dog-fighting-ring.html" target="_blank"><i>The Blade</i></a>, stated that the first six months of the community control sentence was spent by Steward at the Corrections Center of Northwest Ohio near Stryker, followed by six months at the Correctional Treatment Facility in Toledo, followed by three months in the county’s Work Release Program and three months of electronic monitoring.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dog warden was to evaluate the dogs and determine whether they could be placed or would have to be destroyed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dog warden said she was open to working with the <a href="http://www.lucascountypitcrew.com/" target="_blank">Lucas County Pit Crew</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>, a pit bull adoption and dog rescue organization, which could help place the dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An individual from that organization advised us that four of the dogs were placed with families, but two had to be put down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Conclusion</b></div>
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The case demonstrates the hurdles police and prosecutors face in establishing a connection between a wounded and suffering dog and a dogfighting enterprise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The evidence here depended on the analysis of the wounds by a veterinarian and an expert on dogfighting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fact that the wounds were recent was important, given that there was no evidence that the defendant had the dogs longer than the three months that he claimed to have had them in the house.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The appellate court referred to no evidence of actual dog fights involving the dogs or Steward himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, the circumstantial evidence and the wound forensics were enough to secure a conviction, with at least some jail time, though more evidence of actual participation in dog fights could perhaps have produced a stiffer sentence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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One could argue that the police should have broadened the dragnet by staking out the house and waiting for Steward to make a delivery or take a dog to a fight, but that would have prolonged the suffering of the dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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This blog was written by John Ensminger and L.E. Papet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to Julie Lyle, Director of Lucas County Canine Care & Control, Toledo, Ohio for photographs of the dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-15042709030488091572015-08-24T06:25:00.001-04:002015-08-24T06:25:34.447-04:00VA Issues Final Animal Access Rules for Facilities; Allows Service Dogs for PTSD but Bans Miniature Horses; Rejects Push for Service Dog Training Monopoly<div class="MsoNormal">
The Department of Veterans Affairs has issued final rules regarding animals, including service and therapy animals, on VA property.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-08-17/pdf/2015-20182.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 49157 (August 17, 2015)</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The proposed rules were discussed here in a <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2014/11/va-to-allow-more-service-dogs-in.html" target="_blank">prior blog</a>, and nearly 100 comments were submitted on various aspects of the rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fortunately, much of what the service dog community said was heard by the VA reg writers, and many veterans whose service dogs for PTSD were being excluded from VA facilities have reason to rejoice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The final rules, 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11), effective September 16, 2015, are reproduced in an appendix at the end of this blog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The preamble to the final rules states that their purpose is to establish “a set of standardized criteria that can be uniformly enforced on VA property, and removes variation amongst individual facilities that existed prior to this final rule.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The reg writers are to be praised for acknowledging that there has been confusion, particularly with some facilities using the funding rules of 38 CFR 17.148 as access rules as well, while others were using the rules of the Department of Justice as a default.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Definition of Service Animal: Work <i>or</i> Tasks </b></div>
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The final rules define “service animal” identically to the definition given in the VA's 2014 proposal, with the exception of one word:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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A service animal means any dog that is individually trained to do work <b>or</b> perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability…. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual’s disability.</div>
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The proposal had used the conjunction “and” instead of “or,” creating the possibility that a dog could not solely “do work,” as is allowed under the rules promulgated by the Department of Justice in 2010.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The distinction between work and tasks is perhaps one of the most complicated, if not muddled, issues in the terminology of service animal law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For an insightful analysis of this issue, see the online article by Bradley Morris, <a href="http://www.psychdogpartners.org/resources/work-tasks/toward-clarity-utility-work-vs-task-distinctions" target="_blank">Toward Clarity and Utility in Work vs. Task Distinctions</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Some commenters, including me, had suggested that examples be provided of what the VA considers to be work or tasks, particularly as to service animals that might assist an individual with a mental disability or illness. The VA has declined to do this, but specifically adds a reference in the preamble to ADA guidance provided by the Department of Justice (<a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-09-15/pdf/2010-21824.pdf" target="_blank">75 Fed. Reg. 56236</a>, scroll down to p. 56266 et seq.). Thus, the VA seems to be incorporating by reference the following passages:</div>
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The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the handler’s disability. Examples of work or tasks include, but are not limited to, assisting individuals who are blind or have low vision with navigation and other tasks, alerting individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to the presence of people or sounds, providing non-violent protection or rescue work, pulling a wheelchair, assisting an individual during a seizure, alerting individuals to the presence of allergens, retrieving items such as medicine or the telephone, providing physical support and assistance with balance and stability to individuals with mobility disabilities, and helping persons with psychiatric and neurological disabilities by preventing or interrupting impulsive or destructive behaviors.</div>
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Although the common definition of work includes the performance of tasks, the definition of work is somewhat broader, encompassing activities that do not appear to involve physical action.</div>
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A pet or support animal may be able to discern that the handler is in distress, but it is what the animal is trained to do in response to this awareness that distinguishes a service animal from an observant pet or support animal.</div>
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It is the Department’s [i.e., DOJ's] view that an animal that is trained to “ground” a person with a psychiatric disorder does work or performs a task that would qualify it as a service animal as compared to an untrained emotional support animal whose presence affects a person’s disability.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is the fact that the animal is trained to respond to the individual’s needs that distinguishes an animal as a service animal. The process must have two steps: Recognition and response. For example, if a service animal senses that a person is about to have a psychiatric episode and it is trained to respond, for example, by nudging, barking, or removing the individual to a safe location until the episode subsides, then the animal has indeed performed a task or done work on behalf of the individual with the disability, as opposed to merely sensing an event.</div>
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It is to be hoped that training materials for security personnel and others in VA facilities will specifically include these examples, since the regulatory release provides only a reference.<br />
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<b>No Change in Funding Rules</b><br />
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The preamble to the VA's final rules seems not to be wholeheartedly accepting of the DOJ's examples of work and tasks as the final sentence of the discussion states:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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By providing this reference of examples of work and tasks in the context of public access, VA is not expressing a position on the efficacy of such dogs for the treatment of the disabilities of the individuals.</div>
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This statement initially struck me as out of place, as a vague if not pointless hedge on the cross-reference to DOJ’s examples, until Veronica Morris pointed out that the VA had a history of questioning the value of service dogs for mental disabilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I had forgotten that I had even <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2012/09/va-final-service-dog-rules-still-nix.html" target="_blank">blogged about this three years ago</a> when the VA finalized 38 CFR 17.148, the VA's service dog funding rule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In explaining why it would not fund service dogs for mental disabilities, the VA had stated: </div>
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We are unaware of similarly vetted and accepted training protocols for mental health service dogs, or how assistance from such dogs could be consistently helpful for veterans to mitigate mental health impairments.</div>
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The preamble to the final funding rules had added that "if we ultimately determine that mental health dogs are appropriate treatment tools for mental health impairments, we will amend our regulations to authorize benefits for such dogs." Thus, it appears that the VA's reiteration of its doubt as to the value of service dogs for mental disabilities is a way of stating it has no current plans, despite allowing such dogs into facilities, to provide funds so that veterans without sufficient resources can purchase or maintain them. <br />
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I had argued in the prior blog that guide dogs do not cure blindness but do help people with vision impairments function in ways they would not be able to do otherwise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, a dog that is trained to sit behind a veteran having a panic attack in a movie line and give him some space may not reduce the number or severity of panic attacks (and thus may not “treat” them), but may allow the veteran to stay in the movie line and later enjoy the movie. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The VA’s argument that a medical benefit would have to be demonstrated before it would consider funding psychiatric service dogs is thus based on faulty logic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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It might also be worth noting that when it was revealed that the access rules were on a fast track for finalization, discussed in a <a href="http://doglawreporter.blogspot.com/2015/06/va-secretary-puts-service-dog-rules.html" target="_blank">blog posted here on June 1</a>, the slides that revealed this priority referred to the internal process as a “concurrence process.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> The phrase struck me as odd at the time. I have been involved as the onetime chair of an ABA tax section committee (Banking and Savings Institutions) with a number of Treasury Department regulatory initiatives, yet have never seen any initiative referred to as a concurrence process, as if some set of officials held a veto power they would exercise if their opinions were not respected. </span>My interpretation of the use of the phrase in the slide is that some faction (it could be a single individual but is more likely a group) inside the VA thinks service dogs for psychiatric conditions are bullshit and would not sign off on the publication of the final rules—“concur”—unless their objections were noted to make it clear that any move by others in the VA to allow funding for dogs used by veterans with PTSD would be met with forceful resistance. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">There is one remote possibility for change in the VA's position, but this depends on research that seems to be making little progress. In 2011, the VA announced its intention to study the benefits of service dogs for veterans with PTSD. Clinical trials (<a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT01329341" target="_blank">NCT01329341</a>) are supposedly being conducted at the <a href="http://www.tampa.va.gov/" target="_blank">James A. Haley Veterans' Hospital</a> in Tampa, Florida, with a projected completion date (there have been several, with the first being almost two years ago) now set for October 2017. The success of the study will apparently be determined for participants by measures of their PTSD symptoms (PTSD Checklist-PCL), depression levels (Patient Health Questionnaire-9, or PHQ-9), and level of alcohol abuse (Audit-C). Presumably if the results under one or more of the measures in these tests indicate improvement of the experimental population, the VA will reconsider its resistance to providing funds for service dogs to veterans with PTSD. </span></div>
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<b>Individually Trained, but No ADI/IGDF Requirement as to Access</b></div>
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Following the Department of Justice, the emphasis of the VA’s definition of service animal is that it be individually trained, not that it be trained by a specific group.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some commenters had argued that dogs should be only allowed into VA facilities if trained by member organizations of Assistance Dogs International or the International Guide Dog Federation, as is still required under the funding rules of 38 CFR 17.148. The VA has conclusively rejected such a restrictive approach to service dog access:</div>
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VA’s standard for service animal access is consistent with regulations that implement the ADA and is not dependent on how the service animal was trained or by whom, but instead depends on the service animal’s ability to behave in accordance with typical public access standards for public settings.</div>
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<b>Health Records Requirements for Service Dogs</b></div>
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The proposed rules appeared to require documentation requirements that might apply for access to VA property, which led to some objections from commenters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The health records requirement has been bifurcated into access for veterans who will receive treatment in a residential program, and those for general access to VA property, as follows. </div>
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1.218(a)(11)…</div>
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(vi) Unless paragraph (a)(11)(vii) of this section applies, an individual with a disability must not be required to provide documentation, such as proof that an animal has been certified, trained, or licensed as a service animal, to gain access to VA property accompanied by the service animal. However, an individual may be asked if the animal is required because of a disability, and what work or task the animal has been trained to perform.</div>
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(vii) An individual with a disability, if such individual will be accompanied by the service animal while receiving treatment in a VHA residential program, must provide VA with documentation that confirms the service animal has had a current rabies vaccine as determined by state and local public health requirements, and current core canine vaccines as dictated by local veterinary practice standards (<i>e.g. </i>distemper, parvovirus, and adenovirus-2).</div>
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The vaccination documentation requirement for residential treatment is necessary, according to the preamble, because in such a situation the “service animal will have routine and constant interaction with employees, veterans, patients, and visitors over the course of an extended period of time … so that VA may ensure patient care, patient safety, and infection control standards are met.” </div>
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<b>Emotional Support Animals Not Included</b></div>
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Some commenters had argued that the VA expand its rules to include emotional support animals, or animals that would fit under the definition of “assistance animal” sometimes applied in housing law, but the VA rejected these arguments, even as to VA residential programs: </div>
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Regarding VHA’s residential treatment programs, these programs involve shared spaces amongst multiple veterans, where there is an active treatment component that involves the participation of not only the veterans but also treatment providers as well as other members of the public at times. Therefore, we interpret VHA residential programs to be public treatment spaces (just as the other areas of VHA property that are specified in this final rule), rather than a residential space analogous to the HUD public housing context.</div>
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<b>Dogs in Training Are Not (Yet) Service Animals </b></div>
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The VA’s definitional section specifies that “[s]ervice dogs in training are not considered service animals.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the preamble<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to the final rules, the VA acknowledges that some commenters had objected to this policy:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Some of these commenters reasoned that a service dog in training could be well trained enough to dependably behave safely in public settings, even without having fully completed their training. Other commenters expressed that VA properties could be used as training opportunities for service animals. VA seeks to maintain a safe and therapeutic environment at its properties. In a complex hospital environment, we believe that service animals should be fully trained and a ‘‘service animal in training’’ is not fully trained. We therefore do not revise § 1.218(a)(11)(viii) to permit service animals in training.</div>
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The Department of Justice does not have a similar sentence in the definitional section of its 2010 rules, though the use of the adjective “trained” could be interpreted as indicating that an animal in training is not a service dog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(As I also noted in the 2014 blog concerning the VA’s proposed rules, the Department of Transportation, in its service animal regulations, allows airlines to choose their own policy on whether to admit service animals in training. <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-05-13/pdf/08-1228.pdf" target="_blank">73 Fed. Reg. 27659</a>, May 13, 2008.)</div>
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<b>Dogs Only, Not Miniature Horses </b></div>
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As did the Department of Justice, so the VA has restricted service animals to dogs: </div>
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Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. </div>
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The Department of Justice had created a sort of provisional category for miniature horses, which are being trained by certain groups to be guides for the visually impaired.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The VA did not follow the DOJ in this regard, stating the following in the preamble to the final rules:</div>
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Several commenters wanted VA to permit miniature horses on VA properties. As discussed in the proposed rule, VA believes the presence of a miniature horse poses legitimate safety concerns, both to people on VA property and the miniature horse, especially on VA healthcare properties. This final rule reiterates VA’s determination from the proposed rule, that, in light of a review of the multiple assessment factors, miniature horses are excluded from VA properties. We restate from the proposed rule that these assessment factors include the larger size of a miniature horse as well as their reduced predictability in behaving in accordance with typical standards of public access required of service animals. Additional factors from the proposed rule that VA considers to support the exclusion of miniature horses include elimination of horse waste, a heightened flee response of a miniature horse, the smooth flooring common to VA properties, and the likely disruptive attention a horse would receive.</div>
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Of all the comments received on the VA's proposal, only two mentioned miniature horses. One was a service dog user who made the offhand but correct observation that some service dogs are larger than some miniature horses, and another, an attorney with <a href="http://www.disabilityrightsnc.org/" target="_blank">Disability Rights North Carolina</a>, noted that the exclusion of miniature horses moves away form a general principle of inclusion. No guide miniature horse user or advocate submitted any comments. As I have said before, some vocal miniature horse user or organization needs to step up to the plate if this modality is to be taken seriously in government circles.<b> </b><br />
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<b>Access Applies to Service Animals of Veterans, but Also Visitors and Employees</b></div>
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Psychiatric Service Dog Partners in its comment had argued that the access rules should also apply to service dogs coming with visitors to see veterans in facilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I had noted that some employees of VA facilities also use service dogs (and some patients and residents are also employees).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The preamble states that “this VA regulation applies to everyone seeking access to VA property, to include employees,veterans, and visitors.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Harness or Leash Requirement Removed, Alternate Handler Allowed</b></div>
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The 2014 proposed rules had stated that a “service animal must be in a guiding harness or on a leash, under control of the individual with the disability at all times while on VA property.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was criticized by various commenters:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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These commenters asserted that multiple disabilities might prevent an individual from physically controlling a service animal via a harness or leash, or that the service animal’s presence on a leash or other tether at all times might prevent that service animal from completing work or tasks they are trained to perform. Further, some commenters urged VA to adopt a standard that mimics that of the regulations that implement the ADA, whereby control over the service animal by the handler can be in the form of voice control. VA agrees with these comments, and amends § 1.218(a)(11)(i) to incorporate comparable language to that used in the regulations that implement the ADA. <i>Cf. </i><a href="http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=2c011056c3fe789d5ba52d56541fdb45&mc=true&node=se28.1.36_1302&rgn=div8" target="_blank">28 CFR 36.302(c)(4)</a>.</div>
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The final rules thus provide:</div>
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A service animal shall have a harness, leash, or other tether, unless either the handler is unable because of a disability to use a harness, leash, or other tether, or the use of a harness, leash, or other tether would interfere with the service animal’s safe, effective performance of work or tasks, in which case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler’s control (<i>e.g., </i>voice control, signals, or other effective means).</div>
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“Other effective means” can include an alternate handler, as indicated in the preamble and specified in 38 CFR 1.218(a)(11)(ii)(A), which provides that a service animal will be denied access to VA property or removed from VA property if it “is not under the control of the individual with a disability <i>or an alternate handler</i>….” </div>
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<b>VA Employees Not Responsible for Cleaning Up or Temporary Control </b></div>
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The preamble to the final rules emphasizes that VA employees are never to be responsible for controlling a service animal, or for cleaning up after one that relieves “bowel or bladder on VA property.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not stated in the rules themselves, but they do provide that a service animal “must be trained to eliminate its waste in an outdoor area.” An animal can be denied access if it is not housebroken, though there would probably have to be an accident or two before a facility could make such a determination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Area Exclusions inside Facilities</b></div>
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As discussed in the 2014 blog, the proposed rules had listed a number of areas in VA hospitals and facilities where service animals were not to be permitted, which I admit did not trouble me, but other commenters disagreed, and were apparently right:</div>
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[C]ommenters objected to the categorical exclusion of service animals from inpatient hospital settings to include locked mental health units … and from patient rooms or treatment areas where patients may have an animal allergy or phobia…. VA cited three examples of acute inpatient hospital settings … (intensive care units, stabilization units, and locked mental health units) in a representative but not exhaustive list of areas that could be covered by this exclusion. In light of the comments received, VA revises § 1.218(a)(11)(iii)(C) to remove these examples, and instead qualify the exclusion of service animals in acute inpatient settings to exclude such animals when their presence is not part of a documented treatment plan. VA agrees with the commenters that there are scenarios in which a service animal on<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>any of the specific areas … may provide its services when the individual being treated or an alternate handler can control a service animal as part of a treatment plan established by the clinical care team.</div>
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Thus, if a veteran receiving treatment wishes to have his or her service animal in a particular location of a facility, he or she should inform members of the treatment team of this desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Certain locations, “such as operating rooms, surgical suites, areas where invasive procedures are being performed, decontamination, sterile processing, sterile storage areas, food preparation areas (not to include public food service areas), and any areas where protective barrier measure are required,” are still be off limits to service dogs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The final rules removed a provision in the 2014 proposal that would have prohibited service dogs from being in patient rooms where a patient may have an animal allergy or phobia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Animal Assisted Activities and Therapy (AAA and AAT) </b></div>
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The VA is to be particularly commended for being the first major federal agency to give a coherent perspective on the access that must be provided for therapy animals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In commenting on the rules I had said that “it would be advisable to indicate whether animals other than dogs are appropriate for AAT and AAA work, and under what circumstances they could be admitted.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The preamble to the final rules states:</div>
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Unlike service animals under the proposed and final rules, there is no species restriction for AAA or AAT animals, and AAA or AAT animals are permitted on VHA property only at the discretion of the VA facility head or designee. Should an AAA or AAT animal that is not a dog meet the requirements in § 1.218(a)(11)(ix)(C) and (D), a VA facility head or designee may grant that animal access to VA property.</div>
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I had also suggested that the VA might want to assure that therapy animals have liability insurance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To this idea, the preamble replies:</div>
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We do not disagree that liability insurance would be a sensible requirement, particularly as AAA is often conducted in group settings. However, VA believes that any liability insurance would be better addressed outside of a regulatory requirement by the VA facility head or designee and the AAA or AAT handler or organization prior to establishing a particular program at a facility.</div>
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Animals may also be allowed to remain in Community Living Centers and Mental Health Residential Rehabilitation Programs "to create a more homelike environment." <b> </b><br />
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<b>Conclusions</b></div>
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The Department of Veterans Affairs has clarified that its definition of service animal, aside from not incorporating examples and the provisional status of miniature horses, is that of the Department of Justice in its 2010 regulations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The definition clearly allows for psychiatric service dogs that “do work” with regard to such conditions as PTSD without having to perform specific tasks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is a welcome clarification, and a considerable departure from the restrictive funding regulations previously adopted in 38 CFR 17.148, as to which there appears to be little hope for early change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The modifications in the final rules as to a service dog’s required health records, and the fact that the rules apply to visitors to VA facilities as well as employees, are welcome improvements, as is the general easing of the area restriction concept that was envisioned in the proposed rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Those of us who handle therapy dogs must thank the VA for carefully considering the position of such dogs in therapeutic activities and programs at VA facilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this instance, the Department of Justice could learn from the VA, and hopefully will.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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For additional discussion of these final rules, see the discussion provided by <a href="http://www.psychdogpartners.org/board-of-directors/board-activities/advocacy/veterans-affairs-38-cfr-1-218a11-comment" target="_blank">Psychiatric Service Dog Partners</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<i><b>Appendix</b></i>: Final Rule: Animals on VA Property, <a href="http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-08-17/pdf/2015-20182.pdf" target="_blank">80 Fed. Reg. 49157 (August 17, 2015)</a>. </div>
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38 CFR 1.218(a)…</div>
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(11) <i>Animals. </i>(i) Service animals, as defined in paragraph (a)(11)(viii) of this section, are permitted on VA property when those animals accompany individuals with disabilities and are trained for that purpose. A service animal shall be under the control of the person with the disability or an alternate handler at all times while on VA property. A service animal shall have a harness, leash, or other tether, unless either the handler is unable because of a disability to use a harness, leash, or other tether, or the use of a harness, leash, or other tether would interfere with the service animal’s safe, effective performance of work or tasks, in which case the service animal must be otherwise under the handler’s control (<i>e.g., </i>voice control, signals, or other effective means). VA is not responsible for the care or supervision of a service animal. Service animal presence on VA property is subject to the same terms, conditions, and regulations as generally govern admission of the public to the property.</div>
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(ii) A service animal will be denied access to VA property or removed from VA property if:</div>
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(A) The animal is not under the control of the individual with a disability or an alternate handler;</div>
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(B) The animal is not housebroken. The animal must be trained to eliminate its waste in an outdoor area; or</div>
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(C) The animal otherwise poses a risk to the health or safety of people or other service animals. In determining whether an animal poses a risk to the health or safety of people or other service animals, VA will make an individualized assessment based on objective indications to ascertain the severity of the risk. Such indications include but are not limited to:</div>
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(<i>1</i>) External signs of aggression from the service animal, such as growling, biting or snapping, baring its teeth, lunging; or</div>
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(<i>2</i>) External signs of parasites on the service animal (<i>e.g. </i>fleas, ticks), or other external signs of disease or bad health (<i>e.g. </i>diarrhea or vomiting).</div>
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(iii) Service animals will be restricted from accessing certain areas of VA property under the control of the Veterans Health Administration (VHA properties) to ensure patient care, patient safety, or infection control standards are not compromised. Such areas include but are not limited to:</div>
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(A) Operating rooms and surgical suites;</div>
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(B) Areas where invasive procedures are being performed;</div>
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(C) Acute inpatient hospital settings when the presence of the service animal is not part of a documented treatment plan;</div>
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(D) Decontamination, sterile processing, and sterile storage areas;</div>
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(E) Food preparation areas (not to include public food service areas); and</div>
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(F) Any areas where personal protective clothing must be worn or barrier protective measures must be taken to enter.</div>
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(iv) Service animals will be restricted from accessing certain areas of VA property under the control of the National Cemetery Administration (NCA properties) to ensure that public safety, facilities and grounds care, and maintenance control are not compromised. Such areas include but are not limited to:</div>
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(A) Open interment areas, except as approved to observe an individual interment or inurnment.</div>
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(B) Construction or maintenance sites; and</div>
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(C) Grounds keeping and storage facilities.</div>
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(v) If a service animal is denied access to VA property or removed from VA property in accordance with (a)(11)(ii) of this section, or restricted from accessing certain VA property in accordance with paragraphs (a)(11)(iii)and (iv) of this section, then VA will give the individual with a disability the opportunity to obtain services without having the service animal on VA property.</div>
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(vi) Unless paragraph (a)(11)(vii) of this section applies, an individual with a disability must not be required to provide documentation, such as proof that an animal has been certified, trained, or licensed as a service animal, to gain access to VA property accompanied by the service animal. However, an individual may be asked if the animal is required because of a disability, and what work or task the animal has been trained to perform.</div>
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(vii) An individual with a disability, if such individual will be accompanied by the service animal while receiving treatment in a VHA residential program, must provide VA with documentation that confirms the service animal has had a current rabies vaccine as determined by state and local public health requirements, and current core canine vaccines as dictated by local veterinary practice standards (<i>e.g. </i>distemper, parvovirus, and adenovirus-2).</div>
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(viii) A service animal means any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual’s disability. The crime deterrent effects of an animal’s presence and the provision of emotional support, well-being, comfort, or companionship do not constitute work or tasks for the purposes of this definition. Service dogs in training are not considered service animals. This definition applies regardless of whether VA is providing benefits to support a service dog under 38 CFR 17.148.</div>
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(ix) Generally, animals other than service animals (“non-service animals”) are not permitted to be present on VA property, and any individual with a non-service animal must remove it. However, a VA facility head or designee may permit certain non-service animals to be present on VA property for the following reasons:</div>
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(A) Animals may be permitted to be present on VA property for law enforcement purposes;</div>
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(B) Animals under the control of the VA Office of Research and Development may be permitted to be present on VA property;</div>
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(C) Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) animals may be permitted to be present on VHA property when the presence of such animals would not compromise patient care, patient safety, or infection control standards. AAT is a goal-directed clinical intervention, as provided or facilitated by a VA therapist or VA clinician, that incorporates the use of an animal into the treatment regimen of a patient. Any AAT animal present on VHA property must facilitate achievement of patient-specific treatment goals, as documented in the patient’s treatment plan. AAT animals must be up to date with all core vaccinations or immunizations, prophylactic parasite control medications, and regular health screenings as determined necessary by a licensed veterinarian consistent with local veterinary practice standards. Proof of compliance with these requirements must be documented and accessible in the area(s) where patients receive AAT.</div>
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(D) Animal-assisted activity (AAA) animals may be permitted to be present on VHA property when the presence of such animals would not compromise patient care, patient safety, or infection control standards. AAA involves animals in activities to provide patients with casual opportunities for motivational, educational, recreational, and/or therapeutic benefits. AAA is not a goal-directed clinical intervention that must be provided or facilitated by a VA therapist or clinician, and therefore is not necessarily incorporated into the treatment regimen of a patient or documented in the patient’s medical record as treatment. AAA animals must be up to date with all core vaccinations or immunizations, prophylactic parasite control medications, and regular health screenings as determined necessary by a licensed veterinarian consistent with local veterinary practice standards. Proof of compliance with these requirements must be documented and accessible in the area(s) where patients may participate in AAA.</div>
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(E) Animals participating in a VA Community Living Center (CLC) residential animal program or a Mental Health Residential Rehabilitation Treatment Program (MHRRTP) may be permitted to be present on VHA property, when the presence of such animals would not compromise patient care, patient safety, or infection control standards. A residential animal program in a VA CLC or a MHRRTP is a program that uses the presence of animals to create a more homelike environment to foster comfort for veterans, while also stimulating a sense of purpose, familiarity, and belonging. Any VA CLC or MHRRTP residential animal present on VHA property must facilitate achievement of therapeutic outcomes (such as described above), as documented in patient treatment plans. Residential animals in a VA CLC or MHRRTP must be up to date with all core vaccinations and immunizations, prophylactic parasite control medications, and regular health screenings as determined necessary by a licensed veterinarian consistent with local veterinary practice standards. Proof of compliance with these requirements must be documented and accessible in the VA CLC or MHRRTP.</div>
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(F) Animals may be present on NCA property for ceremonial purposes during committal services, interments, and other memorials, if the presence of such animals would not compromise public safety, facilities and grounds care, and maintenance control standards.</div>
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(x) For purposes of this section, a disability means, with respect to an individual, a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities of the individual; a record of such an impairment; or being regarded as having such an impairment.</div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8437901534161780164.post-75890948257040580642015-08-17T06:35:00.001-04:002015-08-18T11:39:45.399-04:00Service Dogs Sometimes Belong in Shopping Carts: Justice Department Amends a FAQ<div class="MsoNormal">
In a webpage the Department of Justice has posted, <a href="http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/service_animal_qa.html" target="_blank"><i>Frequently Asked Questions about Service Animals and the ADA</i></a>, one question and DOJ answer now read as follows: </div>
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Q31: <b>Are stores required to allow service animals to be placed in a shopping cart? </b></div>
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A: Generally, the dog must stay on the floor, or the person must carry the dog. For example, if a person with diabetes has a glucose alert dog, he may carry the dog in a chest pack so it can be close to his face to allow the dog to smell his breath to alert him of a change in glucose levels.<br />
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Until last week, there was one additional word in the answer to the FAQ, which began with "No." Thus, the DOJ had been saying that a dog could not be put in a shopping cart, but generally it had to walk on the floor or be carried by the owner. Why the wording was changed in the last week may be due to a dispute that arose between a grocery story in California and a woman with a seizure alert dog. <br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsk7WjJDnuL6MhTjJZV6_gJ_-XBTnmVWjq8YUiu8rtlWA_fennj-teYhF7ye3rLqhOifHqv06ybe-MZ78mPnRD_AzZIulxdSgsSg8HC5B_T-5NXP02Lm0u98n13dnr7GFhN4goZ8lV3Mw/s1600/FAQ+31.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="100" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsk7WjJDnuL6MhTjJZV6_gJ_-XBTnmVWjq8YUiu8rtlWA_fennj-teYhF7ye3rLqhOifHqv06ybe-MZ78mPnRD_AzZIulxdSgsSg8HC5B_T-5NXP02Lm0u98n13dnr7GFhN4goZ8lV3Mw/s400/FAQ+31.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">FAQ 31 as downloaded by the author on July 20.</td></tr>
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The Department’s stance on shopping carts--specifically the No that has now been removed--had received the approval of some service dog users.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An article in <i>The Daily Courier</i> of Prescott, Arizona, on July 17, entitled <a href="http://dcourier.com/main.asp?SectionID=1&SubSectionID=1086&ArticleID=147750" target="_blank">“No dogs in shopping carts: service dog owners hail clarification of ADA rules,<i>"</i></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>by Nanci Hutson, quotes a service dog user as saying:</div>
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"My husband and I have experienced a lot of problems with fake service dogs in the area, usually in grocery stores…. They will start barking from the carts and distract my husband's service dog whose job is to provide a sense of protection and a bubble around my husband."</div>
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This undoubtedly reflects the experience of many service dog users whose legitimacy has been questioned by store owners who have encountered people trying to disguise their pets as service animals in order to gain access.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<b><i>Butler v. WinCo Foods </i></b></div>
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In the California case between a shopper and WinCo Foods, LLC, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that WinCo Foods’ “store-wide policy prohibiting service animals from riding in its grocery carts” was not moot merely because the grocery story had offered the plaintiff an exception to its no-dogs-including-service-dogs-in-shopping-carts policy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The exception was that Butler could put her dog in a grocery cart while she was shopping as long as the animal was in a carrier.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca9/13-55862/13-55862-2015-05-26.html" target="_blank"><i>Butler v. Winco Foods, LLC</i>, No. 13-55862</a>, 2015 U.S.App.LEXIS (9<sup>th</sup> Cir. May 8, 2015), on appeal from the Central District of Califoria (CV 12-980 PA). </div>
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<b>A Seizure-Alert and Seizure-Response Dog </b></div>
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Lynda Butler, who sued WinCo Foods over its service animal policies, explained in a Declaration filed with the trial court what her dog does for her: </div>
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I have a service dog, Coco Beans, who is a Cairn Terrier and who weighs about 15 pounds. I bathe her every two weeks and she is always clean. She does not bark or misbehave in public. She alerts me to the onset of a seizure and she orients me as I am coming out of the seizure. She alerts me by staring at my face, whining and scratching at my arms or chest. She orients me by repeatedly licking both sides of my face. This assists me in understanding that I have had a seizure and allows me to come into focus because my seizures effect my consciousness.</div>
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Butler’s Declaration says that the dog “never exhibited these behaviors before my seizures in 2006.”</div>
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About a month or two after my hospitalization in 2006 I realized that Coco Beans scratched and whined at me only when I had a seizure. I realized that she would scratch and whine, I would lose consciousness and I would wake up to her licking my face repeatedly. I put two and two together and realized that she was letting me know I was having a seizure even before I knew it. I also realized that her repeated licking of my face helped bring me into focus and to understand what had happened to me. I then began training her to continue these behaviors by praising her when she performed them. Instead of giving her corrections or disciplining her to stop the behaviors as I had been doing, I let her know they were acceptable by giving her positive reinforcement.</div>
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<b>Dog’s Alerting Ability Allows Owner to Be in Public </b></div>
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Fearing she would have a seizure in public, Butler was largely housebound and got others to do her shopping for her but she began to trust that the dog could give her sufficient advance warning and she began to go out, including to shop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>She describes an early incident where the dog’s advance warning allowed her to sit down before a seizure struck:</div>
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I rely on Coco Beans’ alerting function. She alerted me to a seizure when I was shopping at the Albertsons near my house. She was in the cart seat and she began whining and pawing at my arms. I took her from the cart seat, sat down and placed her on my lap. I awoke to her licking my face repeatedly and there were customers and a store employee around me. If I did not have Coco Beans alert me, I would have fallen to the floor and hurt myself. I told the people around me that I had had a seizure, that Coco let me know about it and I did not need medical help. Coco helped me avoid having to go the hospital, which the people likely would have made me do if I had been injured.</div>
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The dog must be close to Butler’s upper body for the dog to alert or for it to be visible to Butler:</div>
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Coco Beans has only alerted me when she is in close proximity to my upper body, either when she is on my lap, next to me in a chair or in bed or is in a cart seat. I do not know how she knows to alert me. All I know is that when she is on the ground, she does not alert me or I do not understand the alert. I have fallen three times when Coco Beans did not alert me.</div>
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Most stores have not given Butler any difficulty about having the dog in a shopping cart, and neither did WinCo at first: </div>
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I shopped at Winco with Coco Beans in the cart seat without a problem until the summer of 2010. A female manager told me I had to remove Coco Beans from the cart seat. I told her that Coco needed to be in the cart seat to alert me to seizures. The female manager told me it was a “health and safety” violation. I did not believe that was true and I contacted the Health Department, which gave me a copy of Health and Safety Code 114259.5. I spoke with the Health Department official who was responsible for the Perris area and he told me that the Code only applied to food preparation workers, not to customers. I then discussed this with the female Winco manager who told me she would discuss it with Winco’s food safety person. After that, I was allowed to continue shopping with Coco in the cart seat.</div>
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<b>WinCo Reverses Earlier Position </b></div>
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In 2011, a new manager at the WinCo store reversed the decision of the prior manager and told Butler she could not have the dog in a shopping cart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was an economic burden because Butler found WinCo’s prices much lower than other grocery stores in the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alternatives to putting the dog in a shopping cart were not available to Butler:</div>
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I cannot carry Coco Beans while doing my month’s shopping at Winco because of my back problems. I also cannot carry her while I shop because I have to hold onto her carrier’s shoulder straps when we walk so that they do not fall off of my shoulder. I cannot hold onto the straps and push a grocery cart with one hand, particularly when it is loaded with groceries.</div>
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Thus, the chest pack option suggested by the Department of Justice in FAQ 31 is not available to Butler.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Butler tried once to put the dog in the cart inside the carrier, but again the manager told her that this was unacceptable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was not optimal to Butler either, as it left very little room for groceries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Hanging Carrier Inadequate for Butler and Coco Beans</b></div>
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WinCo at some point began offering patrons a “hanging carrier” that it deemed acceptable for situations like that of Butler, but this was also inadequate:</div>
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I looked at the pictures of the hanging carrier offered now by Winco. I understand the carrier is 13.5 inches long. Coco’s spine alone is 18.5 inches long, from the base of her neck to the base of her tail. Winco’s carrier will not work for me because it is too small for my service dog. Even if I could get her to stay in that small space, she would not fit comfortably in it. She would have to sit up for the whole two hours or so that it would take me to shop. This would be very stressful for her. Also, on the box for the carrier, it says that it is made for dogs up to 14 pounds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Coco is already above that weight, so the carrier is not only too small, it is unsafe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Using the carrier would also put Butler too far from the cart she was pushing, which she needs to be close to for her own support needs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b>Expert Opinion </b></div>
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A witness retained by Butler, Dr. Adam Kirton, also submitted a Declaration on the motion for summary judgment in which he summarized the research on seizure alerting, including his own, and stated that Butler “describes seizure alerting behaviours that directly assist her in managing her seizures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The descriptions are consistent with those found in multiple published studies.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kirton expressed doubt regarding some of WinCo’s reasons for refusing to allow the dog in a shopping cart:</div>
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Though I am not an expert in animal behaviour or infectious disease, I believe there is no evidence of anything greater than an extremely remote risk to the individual or public of having such an animal accompany their owner in a store with the service animal located in a cart seat on a blanket or in a carrier. Therefore, it is my opinion that the benefits of the seizure response behaviours offered by this dog clearly and substantially outweigh any risks posed by allowing Ms. Butler's dog in the Winco cart seat. The ability of her service dog to alert her to seizures not only gives Ms. Butler confidence to venture into public places like stores, it allows her to avoid serious injury that can result from a fall caused by a seizure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Connecting these observations to the legal questions involved in the case, Kirton states: “Without her service animal, the unpredictability of the seizures makes plaintiff afraid to go into public, which substantially limits her ability to socialize, to shop and to lead a normal life.”</div>
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Kirton notes that the “mechanism by which seizure alerting could occur remains speculative and further studies are required to confirm the possibility and understand the mechanism.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I should note that I have written a chapter in a forthcoming book on canine olfaction that deals with the possibility that the mechanism may be olfactory (though behavioral and “sixth sense” explanations have also been offered).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Health Regulations Not Implicated</span></b><br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">A Google search
for "shopping carts + service dogs" turned up one discussion regarding
the possible application of health regulations prohibiting putting dogs
in shopping carts. This issue has, that I can find, not been raised in <i>Butler v. WinCo</i>, but if it were there would have to be
an analysis similar to that in <i>Johnson v. Gambrinus Company/Spoetzl Brewery</i>, <a href="https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/116/116.F3d.1052.95-40780.html" target="_blank">116 F.3d 1052 (</a></span><a href="https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/116/116.F3d.1052.95-40780.html" target="_blank">5<sup>th</sup> Cir.</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><a href="https://law.resource.org/pub/us/case/reporter/F3/116/116.F3d.1052.95-40780.html" target="_blank"> 1997)</a>,
where a brewery sought to exclude a visitor with a guide dog from
taking a tour of the brewery plant. The district court in the case,
which was affirmed by the Fifth Circuit, had noted that the "marginal
increase in contamination risk associated with over 5,000 annual human
visitors to the Spoetzl Brewery is greater than the marginal increase in
contamination risk associated with the maximum foreseeable number of
annual guide dog visits by an order of magnitude." People put children
with leaky diapers, colds and other contagious diseases in shopping carts, as
well as coats, hats, handbags and countless other items, and the health risks from service dogs occasionally riding in carts would, I suspect, be substantially lower than might come from the mass of other items regularly pushed around in carts.</span><br />
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I agree with Veronica Morris of Psychiatric
Service Dog Partners that in those rare cases where safety or
disability mitigation requires a service dog to be in a shopping cart,
the handler should, if possible, bring a towel or blanket so that the
dog does not actually come in contact with the cart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> Putting the animal inside its carrier into the cart, the exception WinCo offered Butler, creates a similar barrier, but as noted in B</span>utler’s Declaration, the dog was too large for that to be a
practical solution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
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<b>Conclusion </b></div>
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The Ninth Circuit remanded <i>Butler v. WinCo</i> to the Central District of California for further proceedings and, as of this writing, there is no indication that the matter will be settled. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the very least, the facts of the case establish that there are instances where a simplistic statement that dogs do not belong in shopping carts cannot be supported within the framework of the Americans with Disabilities Act.<br />
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It appears to this observer that the Department of Justice may have changed the wording to its shopping cart FAQ so as to avoid becoming an unwitting proponent of the store's side in the California case. It would be good if the Department would go the next step and add a sentence to FAQ 31 acknowledging that service dogs sometimes do belong in shopping carts. In any case, the FAQ now only provides a partial answer so without some additional rewording neither stores nor service dog users will know what to do. <br />
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Thanks to Veronica and Brad Morris and Leigh Anne Novak for reviewing and providing comments that vastly improved this blog.</div>
John Ensmingerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02840129911400528572noreply@blogger.com25